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HOWD'S PATENT DIRECT ACTION WATER WHEEL. 



This draft represents the top view of a Re-action Central Discharging Water Wheel. 
No. 1, represents a Perpendicular Shaft; No. 2, the Arms ; No. 3, the Hangers to sus- 
pend the Rims ; No. 4, the Rims and Buckets; No. 5, Bulk Head; No. 6, Spouts to 
conduct the water into the Wheel ; No. 7, Circular Gate ; No. 9, Apron. 

Plate ] . 



THE 



264 



AMERICAN MILLER, 



AND 



MILLWRIGHT'S ASSISTANT, 



" He who does not keep himself on the line of knowledge, will soon find 
this world ahead of him, and his associations helonging to a past genera- 
tion."— Jir«j-ac« from a Speech delivered in the Senate of the United States, 
January, 1850, by 

SENATOR CASS, OF MICHIGAN, 

TO WHOM THIS WORK IS MOST RESPECTFCLLT DEDICATED BY THE ATJTHOR^^^j,-;?:^^- 



By WILLIAM CARTER HUGHES. iS 




PHILADELPHIA: 
HENRY CAREY BAIRD, 

(SUCCESSOR TO E. L. CARET,) 

S. E. CORNER MARKET AND FIFTH STREETS. 

185L 



^' 



.^•<^ 



'f^^'b'N 



q^2?57' 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1850, by 

William Carter Hughes, 

in the Clerk's' Office of the District Court for the District of Michigan. 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1851, by 

Henry Caret Baird, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, in and for the 

Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 



STEREOTYPED BY L. JOHNSON AND CO. 

PHILADELPHIA. 
PRINTED BY T. K. AND P. G. COLLINS. 



CONTENTS. 



PAET FIRST. 

PAGE 

Introduction 7 

Explanation of Technical Words 11 

On the First Principles of Mechanics 13 

The Principle of the Lever 15 

Inclined Plane 18 

PuUey 19 

Motion 20 

Central Forces 23 

Friction, or Resistance to Motion 25 

Table of the Surfaces of Contact without Urgents 29 

Table of the Results of Experiments on Friction, with 

Urgents. By M. Morin 30 

Table of Diameters of First Movers 35 

Table of Diameters and Circumferences of Circles, Areas 

and Side of Equal Squares 36 

Table of Geometrical Definitions of the Circle and its 

Parts 37 

Centre of Percussion and Oscillation 38 

Hydrostatics — Introduction 39 

On the Upward and Downward Pressure of Water 40 

Specific Gravity 42 

Table of Specific Gravities 43 

Hydrodynamic Power of Water Wheels 45 

On the Action and Reaction of Water, as applied to 

Water-Wheels 46 

3 



4: CONTENTS. 

On the Construction of the Combination Reaction 

Water-Wheel 50 

Table of Velocities of Water-Wheels per minute, with 

Heads of from 4 to 30 feet 54 

Table of the number of Inches of Water necessary to 
drive one Run of Stone, for Grist or Saw-Mills on 

heads of 4 to 30 feet 55 

Table showing the required length of Overshot and 

Breast- Wheels, on heads of 10 to 30 feet 56 

Howd's Direct Action Water-Wheel 57 

Direction for making the same 58 

Vandewater's Water-Wheel 60 

Engraving of. 61 

Table exhibiting the quantity of Wheat ground per hour 
by Vandewater's Wheel 62 

PART SECOND. 

Remarks on the Culture of Grain, &c 63 

Table of Grain grown in the United States 65 

On the Quality of French Burr, as best adapted for 

Grinding Wheat and Corn 66 

The Raccoon Burr Stone 69 

Directions for Preparing new Stones for Grinding. 70 

Directions for laying out the Dress in Millstones 73 

A special Treatise on the different Millstone Dresses now 

in use, with practical remarks on their action 74 

Directions for making Furrows on the most approved 

plan , 80 

Directions for Staffing and Cracking the face of the 

Millstone 81 

On the best size of Millstones for different water powers 83 

Practical remarks on Grinding Wheat and Corn ''84 

Remarks on Indian Corn, as an article of foreign con- 
sumption 87 



CONTENTS. 5 

On the Construction of Merchant Bolts on the old plan.. 88 
Description of a new arrangement of the Merchant Bolts 

on the most approved plan 89 

Directions for making Bolting Cloths of all descriptions... 91 

On the proper size of Mill Picks for Dressing Stones 91 

Composition for Tempering Cast-steel Mill Picks 92 

Ontheuse of the Proof Staff 93 

On the amount of help necessary to be employed in a Mill 

of four run of Stones, with their duties respectively... 94 

Hydraulics, as pertaining to the practical Millwright 96 

Powers of Gravity, Percussion or Impulse, with the re- 
action attachment ;. 99 

Remarks to the Millwright on the necessity of economy 

in planning and arra,nging the Machinery of Flouring 

and Grist-Mills 103 

On Bedding the Stone 105 

To find the number of revolutions of the Water-Wheel per 

minute 108 

To find the velocity of the Stone per minute 108 

Rule to find the Diameters of all Pitch Circles 109 

To find how many revolutions the Stone makes for one of 

the Water- Wheel 109 

On Machinery 110 

Rule for constructing the Conveyor 110 

On the construction of the Mill-Dam Ill 

On the different kinds of Smut Machines now in use, with 

rules for making the same 115 

Remarks on a late invention for introducing air between 

Millstones when Grinding 118 

Description of the Author's Grain Dryer, patented 1850 120 

Rules for the purchase of Wheat for Millers' use 123 

The proper method for fitting the Bale and Driver to the 

Millstone 127 

Remarks on Packing Flour 129 

Table for Packing Flour 130 

1* 



6 CONTENTS. 

Remarks on branding Flour in Barrels 130 

Mauk's Patent Bolt 131 

On the Inspection of Flour 132 

Report on the BreadstuflFs of the United States, their re- 
lative value, and the injury which they sustain by 
transportation, warehousing, &c. &c. — By Lewis C. 

Beck, M. D 134 

Analysis of Wheat Flour 160 

Results of the Analyses 166 

Table for Reckoning the price of Wheat 170 

Steam, as applied to Propelling Mills 183 

On the Construction of the Saw-Mill 184 

Table for Measuring Saw-Logs 187 

Harrison's Patent Mill 189 

Troy French Burr Mill-Stone Manufactory 190 

Lafayette Burr Mill Manufactory 192 

Utica French Burr Mill-Stone Manufactory 192 

Improved Patent Balance 194 

Rochester French Burr Mill-Stone Establishment 196 

Remarks on a New Description of Bolting Material for 

Grist Mills 197 

Brown's Wheat Scale, with Hopper 198 

Brown's Patent Smut Machine 199 

Bran Dusters and Separators Combined 200 

Bonnell's Improved Process of Flouring 202 

Analysis of Wheat Flour 204 

A new and perfect Machine for Cracking Corn in the Cob 215 

Troy (New York) Mill-Gearing Establishment 216 

Clasp Coupling Joint 217 



INTRODUCTION. 



The motto which we have adopted on the title 
page of this work, is purely American in senti- 
ment, and one of those original ideas of our dis- 
tinguished Senator, emanating from the depths of 
profound intellectual greatness, and standing as 
the star of the nineteenth century, to illuminate 
the path of the down-trodden and oppressed. 
And when time has passed with those of this gene- 
ration, these immortal sentiments will ever stand 
out in bold relief, to perpetuate his name with the 
sovereignty of the American people. And, al- 
though expressed on a very different subject from 
which it is here introduced, as a doctrine which we 
fully believe in, we cannot observe any reason to 
forbid its adoption into the science of mechanics, 
as well as that of politics, or any other science 
beneficial to mankind. 

In its practical application to this work, we have 
been guided entirely by its principles, drawn from 
an advanced state of improvement which marks the 
age in which we live; and by contrasting the 



INTRODUCTION. 



past witii the present age, we can recognise that 
march of improvement, stamping as it does all 
branches of our national industry ; and none with 
more satisfactory results than the Milling business 
of the United States. The Milling business occu- 
pies a respectable portion of our national industry, 
and gives employment to a large investment of 
capital in all the principal wheat-growing States 
of this Union, which contributes largely to the 
benefit of our American farmers, in making a 
home market for Wheat and Indian Corn, the two 
principal staples of American produce. 

The author of this work, having spent the best 
portion of his life in the pursuit of his calling as 
a practical Miller, begs to say, in preparing this 
work for the milling public, that his object is to 
establish a correct guide to a business which so 
little is known about, in a shape of substantial 
reference, instead of speculative theories, and that 
confined to the minds only of those who are 
attached to the business, either by the employment 
of capital or otherwise. 

Special regard has also been paid to most of the 
essential improvements which have, of late, been 
introduced for the benefit of the miller. And we 
can also say, that we have omitted a large number 
of late inventions, from the belief of their utter 
worthlessness for a great many of the purposes for 
which they were designed ; and those of our friends 



• INTRODUCTION. 9 

who furnished us with drafts and long statements 
of their peculiar views on milling, will please ac- 
cept our thanks for the same, and this, our apology 
for not giving them a place in these pages. 

We have thought proper to insert in this work 
a Report made to the Commissioner of Patents of 
the United States, in the year 1848, on Breadstuffs, 
their relative value, and the injury which they sus- 
tain from various causes, by Lewis C. Beck, M. D., 
an article which, of itself, highly sustains that 
gentleman's character, for the task he had to per- 
form ; and also reflects much credit on the Com- 
missioner of Patents, Mr. Burke, for the selection 
he made of a person fully competent to perform 
the same. 

The Report contains a scientific chemical analysis 
of wheat and wheat flour, with other important 
information, highly useful to all engaged in milling, 
as well as dealers in breadstuffs ; and we consider 
it one of the most useful and important public 
documents ever distributed from the Patent Office 
of the United States. 

With a full assurance and hope that this work 
may prove useful to all engaged in milling, 
I respectfully subscribe myself, 

Wm. C. Hughes. 



EXPLANATION 

OF TECHNICAL WORDS USED IN THIS WORK. 



Aperture, the opening or passage through which water 
is received or discharged. 

Area, the plain surface of superficial contents. 

Cubic, equation in algebra, an equation in which the 
highest or only power of the unknown quantity is a cute. 
Cube root is the number or quantity which, multiplied 
into itself and then into the product, produces the cube. 
A cubic foot of water weighs 62 J lbs. 

Equilibrium, equipoise, equality of weight or force ; a 
state of rest produced by the mutual counter action of 
two bodies. 

Friction, the act of rubbing the surface of one body 
against another. 

Gravity, weight, heaviness — the tendency of matter 
towards its central body. Weight is the measure of 
gravity. 

Specific gravity means the weight of a body com- 
pared with another of equal bulk, taken as the standard. 
Water is the standard for solids and liquids, and air for 
gas. 

11 



12 EXPLANATIONS OF TECHNICAL WORDS. 

HydronamicSj that science wbicH treats of the pro- 
perties and relations of water and other fluids, either at 
rest or in motion. 

Hydraulics, the science of fluids in motion ; pertain- 
ing to hydronamics. 

Impuhej force communicated instantaneously. 

ImpetuSj force of motion. 

Momentum, the quantity of motion in a moving body 
proportioned to the product of the quantity of matter, 
multiplied by its velocity. 

Percussion, the shock produced by the instant striking 
of bodies; the centre of percussion is that point in a 
moving body about which the impetus of the parts is 
balanced, and when stopped by any force, the whole 
motion of the revolving body is stopped at the same time. 

Quiescence, a state of rest. 

Radius, in geometry, a right line drawn from the 
centre of a circle to the periphery, the semi-diameter of 
the circle. 

Right Angle, in geometry, an angle of ninety degrees 
or one-fourth of a circle. 

Squared, is any number multiplied by itself. 

Theory, an exposition of the general principles of any 
science; the science distinguished from the art, and 
without practice. 

Urgent, pressing with necessity. 

Velocity, is that effection of motion by which a body 
moves over a certain space in a certain time. 

Viscosity, a glutinous tenacity which inclines soft 
bodies to stick closely together. 



THE 



AMERICAN MILLER, 



MILLWRIGHT'S ASSISTANT. 



PART FIRST. 

ON THE FIRST PRINCIPLES OF MECHANICS. 

The science of mechanism is founded on the true 
principles of natural philosophy, and of these principles 
we shall here treat in a plain, simple manner ; as a per- 
fect knowledge of principles of truth and certainty, in 
mechanical science, is as essential to the practitioner of 
the mechanic arts, as a perfect knowledge of the human 
frame is to the skilful anatomist. 

The theory of mechanics is essential to all intelligent 
minds ; and, as far as it relates to the cultivation of the 
mind of the practical mechanic, for whose benefit this 
work is designed, we shall contemplate the mechanical 

2 13 



14 

powers to be three in number, namely : the lever, the 
inclined plane, and the pulley. Some authors of our 
acquaintance denominate them as six in number : the 
three latter as the wheel, axle, and screw. But it is 
clearly evident that the three latter are derivatives of 
the three former, as the wheel and axle, properly con- 
sidered, is a revolving lever, the screw being a revolving 
inclined plane. 

The mechanical powers are known by the following 
terms : as weight and force, or power and resistance,— 
weight being the resistance necessary to overcome, power 
the force requisite to overcome that resistance. When 
they are equal, they are said to be in equilibrio, which 
implies that no motion can take place. But when the 
force becomes greater than the resistance, they are not 
in equilibrium, as motion takes place. Then power 
being a compound of weight, may be determined by 
being multiplied by its relative velocity. 

That which gives motion is called power, that which 
receives it is called weight. 

Mechanical powers are the most simple of the me- 
chanical inventions, as applicable to increase force and 
overcome resistance. 

The first of those powers which claim our attention 
being, in effect of mechanical utility, the most essential 
to the millwright, namely, 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 15 



THE PRINCIPLE OF THE LEVER. 

The lever may be considered, by all mechanics, as 
the leading power of the whole science of mechanism. 
For example, look at the formation of the entire animal 
creation, the superstructure of which is a beautiful 
illustration of those powers so largely developed in all 
animal creation, — every limb acting as a lever, me- 
chanically arranged by joints, as the fulcrums of cen- 
tral motion. 

There is no description of machinery, formed by the 
machinist, but of which the principle of the lever is the 
governing mechanical power -, the effect of which may 
either increase or decrease its relative power, according 
to the manner in which it is applied. Then, we say, 
millwrights particularly should be well acquainted with 
the natural laws by which the powers of this engine 
are accurately demonstrated. 

The lever we must suppose to be composed of some 
inflexible body, as wood or metal ; and although differ- 
ing in form in the various mechanical machines, is al- 
ways governed by the same laws of central motion. 
This central motion, in the common lever, is calculated 
from where the press or fulcrum is attached, which is 
called the centre of motion, the lever being capable of 
turning easily on that point. 

When the lever projects on either side of the fulcrum, 
the projections are mechanically called arms, from which 
we derive the power of the engine. When the fulcrum 



16 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

stands between tlie weight and the power, by the follow- 
ing simple rules we can easily determine the mechanical 
advantage gained; for divide the weight you wish to 
raise by the power you have to apply, and the quotient 
is the difference of leverage ; or, 

Multiply the weight by its distance from the fulcrum,, 
and the power from the same point ; then the weight 
and power will be to each other as their products. 

Example : A weight of 1440 lbs. you wish to raise 
by a force of 70 lbs. ; the length of the short arm of 
the lever being one foot from the fulcrum, what must 
the length of the long one be ? The answer is 20| feet 
in length, where the power is applied to one foot, the 
weight being attached. 

For the sake of brevity, we omit the working of the 
question, and simply state the answer, as it saves the 
introduction of algebraic signs, which would only tend 
to lengthen the subject without facilitating our main 
object, namely, a proper illustration of computing the 
power, which is the mechanical advantage gained by the 
use of all levers, of whatever form, in a plain manner. 

Therefore, for ascertaining the relation which exists 
between power and weight in the lever, the general rule 
is to multiply the power by its distance from the 
fulcrum ] being equal to the weight multiplied by its 
distance from the same point, the fulcrum acting as the 
centre of motion in all engines of this description. 

The analogy that exists between all machines whose 
power is obtained from the principle of the lever, is 
very great ; such machines being all governed by one 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 17 

simple principle, wliicli should be considered as the 
general law of mechanical power : namely, the momen- 
tums of the power and weight are always equal when 
the engine is in equilibrio. 

Momentum means the product of the weight of the 
body multiplied into the distance it moves; or the power 
multiplied into its distance from the centre of motion, 
or into its velocity, is equal to the weight multiplied 
into its distance moved. Or the power multiplied into 
its perpendicular descent, is equal to the weight multi- 
plied into its perpendicular ascent. 

The next law of mechanical power shows the power 
of the lever and velocity of the weight moved are always 
in an inverse proportion to each other; as, the greater 
the velocity of the weight moved, the less it must be ; 
and the less the velocity, the greater the weight may be. 

The lever is of four kinds ; the one above described 
is the first and common kind,- by which the greatest 
mechanical efi'ect is obtained, as the fulcrum or centre 
of motion is placed between the weight and power; the 
nearer the weight, the greater the power. 

The second kind of lever is where the fulcrum is at 
one end, and the power at the other. Its effective power 
is simply as 3 is to 1, where, in a lever of the first kind, 
the effective power is as 12 to 1. 

The third kind of lever is where the fulcrum is at one 
end, the weight at the other, and the power applied be- 
tween them. 

The fourth is the curved lever, which differs only in 
form from the others, its properties being the same. 



18 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

The first and second are engines of real power ; while 
the third tends to decrease power in the same ratio that 
the others increase it, and are only useful to the me- 
chanic in obtaining velocity where the first mover is too 
slow, as is the case in the construction of mills propelled 
by water, where over-shot breast, or under-shot water- 
wheels are used. All wheels are constructed on this 
principle of the third kind of lever. But in the con- 
struction of mills of modern date, they may be, in nine 
cases out of ten, all used on the principle of levers of 
the first kind; which we shall clearly and simply illus- 
trate in this work, under the head of water-wheels. 



THE INCLINED PLANE. 

This mechanical power gives existence to a variety of 
useful machines of recent invention, and is used in com- 
bination with the lever of the first kind, which makes it 
a compound machine of extensive use. 

The wedge is simply an inclined plane, and may be 
considered, for many purposes, as one of the most useful 
of the mechanical powers. The next is the screw, which 
is a revolving inclined plane, and is used for pressure 
and raising heavy weights. The screw is a spiral groove 
cut round a cylinder, and everywhere describing the same 
angle with its length of thread, and, if unfurled and 
stretched, would form a straight inclined plane, the 
length of which would be, to its height, as the circum- 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 19 

ference of the cylinder is to the distance between two 
threads of the screw; for in making one round, the spi- 
ral rises along the cylinder the distance between two 
threads. The length of the plane is found by adding 
the square of the distance between the threads, and ex- 
tracting the square root of the same. As the length of 
an inclined plane is to the pitch or height of it, so is the 
weight to the power; or if the height of the plane be 
one-third its length, then one-third of the power will 
raise a body up the plane by rolling, that it would take 
to raise it up perpendicularly; but it would travel three 
times the distance. The general principle is — as the 
height of the plane is to the height or angle of inclina- 
tion, so is the weight to the power, invariably. 



THE PULLEY. 

A Pulley is a mechanical assistant by which a great 
deal of power is obtained in a small compass, but more 
convenient in accommodating the direction of power to 
that of resistance, as, by pulling downwards, we are able 
to draw a weight upwards; the advantage gained being 
twice the number of movable pulleys. The system of 
pulleys is very simple, and may be ascertained as follows : 

To find the weight that may be raised by a known 
power and a given number of pulleys, fixed or station- 
ary, multiply the power by twice the number of mova- 
ble pulleys, and the product is the weight the power 



20 TRt AMERICAN MILLER, 

equals. Example : To find the weight that a power of 
180 lbs. will raise by a block and tackle, the bottom 
or movable block consisting of four pulleys, 

multiply 180 

by 8 

Answer — equal to 1440 lbs. 

A single pulley may be constructed so that the weight 
will be as three times the power. When more than one 
rope is used, in a system of pulleys where the ends of 
one rope are fastened to the support and power, and the 
ends of the other to the lower and upper blocks, the 
weight is to the power as 4 to 1. The principal objec- 
tion to this machine is the loss of power by friction of 
the pulleys. 



MOTION. 

Motion always is the efi'ect of impulsive force, or the 
act of changing place. In mechanical engines it is un- 
derstood as the act of transmitting power, or the means 
by which power is distributed. Equality or inequality 
of motion is as the diameters of the wheels by which it 
is transmitted. The relative velocity of wheels is as the 
number of cogs contained in each wheel. To find the 
relative velocity or number of revolutions of the last 
wheel to one of the first : Rule, divide the product of 
the cogs of the wheels that are drivers by the product of 
the driven, and the quotient is the number. 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 21 

To find the number of cogs in a train of wheels to pro- 
duce a certain velocity : as the velocity required is to the 
number of cogs in the driven, so is the velocity of the 
driver to the number of cogs in the leader. To find the 
proportions that the velocities of the wheel in a train 
should bear to each other : Rule, subtract the less ve- 
locity from the greater, and divide the remainder by one 
less than the number of wheels in the train ; the quo- 
tient is the number, rising, in arithmetical progression, 
from the less to the greater velocity. 

Before we dismiss the subject of motion, we shall now 
consider the first principles by which motion is obtained 
and governed, namely, ahsolute and relative. 

Absolute motion is that pertaining to the removal of 
material bodies from place to place, and governed en- 
tirely by the principles of natural philosophy, and per- 
taining only to the theory of mechanics ; for in practical 
mechanics we have to do with relative motion only, 
which consists in the difference of time occupied by the 
motion of different bodies, as time is the specific measure 
of its velocity. There are but few branches of the me- 
chanic arts which are so essential to the millwright, as 
a proper knowledge of the laws which govern, and on 
which the principles of mechanical motions are based ; as 
the trade consists in the use, construction, and arrangement 
of engines of moving power, which in mills is the force 
to move and facilitate the different manufactures for 
which they are applied. 

Then the first thought of the practical mechanic should 
be, how to construct and arrange his machinery, so that 



22 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

the power which he has to apply, may be used in the 
best possible mode of construction and arrangement of 
his machinery, on combined scientific and practical prin- 
ciples of mechanical economy. 

The next idea to be considered is one of mechanical 
importance, namely, that as motion increases power de- 
creases. This is what may be considered one of those 
self-evident facts apparent in the very nature of all en- 
gines that can possibly be constructed; and which is also 
evident from the first principle of the lever, when in 
equilibrium, as the power multiplied into its velocity or 
distance moved is equal to the weight multiplied into 
its velocity or distance moved. 

From these facts we see the necessity of guarding 
ourselves, as much as possible, against every absurd and 
unphilosophical practice of many millwrights of the 
present day, to wit, building mills with double gearing 
when single would be better; for single -geared mills are 
always cheaper in their construction, easier kept in re- 
pair, and, when properly constructed, are as powerful 
as the best double-geared mills in the most favourable 
situations. 

We suppose there are many who may difi'er with us in 
this opinion, and that we shall be obliged to present au- 
thority, to convince and establish our peculiar views in 
this particular. This we hope to do under its appropri- 
ate head of water-wheels. 

All must admit that double gearing diminishes power, , 
by the increased resistance to motion, as that of friction ; 
as the more machinery used for a given purpose, the 



23 

more it tends to complication, and the increasing power- 
destroying agent, friction. It must be admitted, also, 
that no power can be obtained by the addition of engines, 
while the velocity of the body moved remains the same. 
And machinery requiring a different velocity, where the 
driving power is the same, (as is the case in flouring 
mills, the motion being as varied as the diff'erent useful 
machines required in manufacturing grain,) should be 
attached as near as possible to the first moving wheel, as 
the greater the distance from the first driving wheel, the 
greater the force of resistance to motion, and produces a 
constant tendency to equilibrium, in all machines re- 
quiring a great velocity. 



CENTRAL FOUCES. 

Bodies moving round a central point have a tendency 
to fly off in a straight line. This tendency is called the 
centrifugal force. It is opposite to the centripetal force, 
or that power which maintains a body in its curved state. 
Centrifugal force flies from the centre, centripetal force ^ 
to the centre, and are called central forces. 

There is no real power attached to those forces called 
central forces, they being only the effect of the power 
which gives motion to all bodies, and can neither add to 
nor diminish the power of any mechanical or hydraulic 
engine, unless it be by friction, when water is the mov- 
ing power, and the machine changes its direction. The 



24 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

centrifugal forces of two unequal bodies, moving wit! 
the same velocity, and at the same distance from the 
central body, are to one another as the respective quan 
titles of matter in the two bodies. 

The centrifugal forces of two equal bodies which per 
form their revolutions around the central body in th( 
same time, but at different distances from it, are to om 
another as their respective distances from the centra] 
body. The centrifugal forces of two bodies which per- 
form their revolutions in the same time, and whose 
quantities of matter are inversely as their distances 
from the centre, are equal to one another. The cen- 
trifugal force of two equal bodies moving at equal dis- 
tances from the central body, but with different veloci- 
ties, are to one another as the squares of their velocities. 

The centrifugal forces of two unequal bodies moving 
at equal distances from the centre, with different veloci- 
ties, are to one another in the compound ratio of their 
quantities of matter and the squares of their velocities. 

The centrifugal forces of two equal bodies moving 
with equal velocities, at different distances from the 
centre, are inversely as their distances from the centre. 

The centrifugal forces of two unequal bodies moving 
with equal velocities, at different distances from the cen- 
tre, are to one another as their quantities of matter mul- 
tiplied by their respective distances from the centre. 

It should be considered that this central force com- 
municates no real power, it being only the effect of 
power which gives motion to a body, and can neither in- 
crease nor diminish the power of any mechanical engine. 



AND anLLWRIGHT's ASSISTANT. 25 



FRICTION, OR RESISTANCE TO MOTION. 

The greater part of all that is yet known with cer- 
tainty respecting the laws and properties which govern 
friction, is founded upon practical experiments, instituted 
on a large scale, and submitted to a great variety of 
trials, by some of the most eminent philosophers of the 
last century. 

M. Colomb, member of the Academy of Science at 
Paris, and Professor Vince, of the University of Cam- 
bridge, have written the most scientific and accurate 
treatises on the natural laws of friction 3 by which we 
are informed that friction does not. increase with the in- 
crease of rubbing surfaces ; or, in other words, however 
the magnitude of the surface of contact may vary, the 
friction will still remain the same, so long as the pres- 
sure is unchanged. 

Friction supposes moving or tending to move on the 
surface of another, or, in words more explicit, occasioned 
by the uniting of bodies whose velocity is sufficiently 
great to produce friction. There are three ways in 
which one surface can move upon another, in each of 
which friction acts differently : — 

1. When one body slides upon the plain surface of 
another body. 

2. When one body, being cylindrical, rolls upon the 
surface of another body. 

3. When a solid cylinder is inserted in a hollow 



26 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

cylinder of greater diameter, and being pressed in an; 
direction with a certain force, revolves with it. 

Colomb has satisfactorily established, by repeate( 
experiments, all of which are confirmed by the experi 
ments of others, that, under the same circumstances, th 
friction of one surface moving upon another is in exac 
proportion to the pressure used and with which the sur 
faces are urged together. 

Colomb, Ximenes, and Yince, in their experiment 
respecting the laws and properties which govern fric 
tion, assert, that when any substance has several faces o 
different magnitudes, the friction will be the same oi 
whatever face it is placed, except in an extreme case 
when they found a slight deviation from the law; wher 
the pressures used were extremely intense, it was founc 
that the friction did not increase in quite so fast a pro 
portion as the pressure. The deviation from the la\^ 
was so inconsiderable, and happened only in such ex 
treme cases, that it might be for the most part un 
noticed. 

When one cylinder rolls upon the surface of anothei 
body, the friction is in proportion to the pressure 
while with cylinders of the same substance, having 
different diameters, but equal pressures, the friction is 
inversely as the diameters. Again : cylinders of th( 
same substance, differing both in diameter and pressure^ 
the friction is directly as the pressure, and inversely as 
the diameters, or in a compound of the direct ratio of 
the pressure and the inverse ratio of the diameters. 

When a solid cylinder is inserted in a hollow cylinder 



27 

of a greater diameter without rolling, if the hollow cylin- 
der be supposed to revolve around the axle, as happens 
in the case of a carriage wheel, every part of the surface 
of the box will be exposed to the effect of friction, while 
no part of the axle will suffer this effect except the side 
which comes in contact with the box, which is the side 
that is operated upon by the force of draft or pressure. 

Then the friction being equal to this force that over- 
comes friction and produces motion, multiplied by the 
radius of the wheel and divided by the radius of the 
hollow cylinder which plays upon the axle, then it ap- 
pears that the friction is greater than the preponderat- 
ing weight; in the proportion of the radius of the 
wheel to the radius of the cylinder. 

In the years 1831, 1832, and 1833, a very extensive 
set of experiments were made at Mentz, by M. Morrin, 
under the sanction of the French government, to deter- 
mine, as near as possible, the laws of friction, and by 
which the following were fully adduced and established. 

1st. When no urgent was interposed, the friction of 
any two surfaces, whether of quiescence or of motion, is 
directly proportioned to the force with which they are 
pressed perpendicularly together ; so that, for any two 
given surfaces of contact, there is a constant ratio of the 
friction to the perpendicular pressure of the one surface 
upon the other. While this ratio is thus the same for 
the same surfaces of contact, it is different for different 
surfaces of contact. The perpendicular value of it, in 
respect to any two given surfaces of contact, is called 
the co-eJB&cient of friction in respect to those surfaces. 



28 

2d. When no urgent is interposed, the amount of the 
friction is, in every case, wholly independent of the ex- 
tent of the surfaces of contact ; so that the force with 
which two surfaces are pressed together being the same, 
their friction is the same, whatever may be the extent 
of their surfaces of contact. 

3d. That the friction of motion is wholly independent 
of the velocity of the motion. 

4th. That where urgents are interposed, the co-effi- 
cient of friction depends upon the nature of the urgent, 
and upon the greater or less abundance of the supply. 

In respect to the nature or supply of the urgent, there 
are two extreme cases : that in which the surfaces of 
contact are but slightly rubbed with unctuous matter, as, 
for instance, with an oiled or greasy cloth ; and that in 
which a continuous flow or stratum of urgent remains 
continually interposed between the moving surfaces of 
contact. 

Professor Morrin found, that with urgents, hog's-lard 
and olive oil, in a continuous stratum between surface 
of wood on metal, wood on wood, metal on metal, when 
in motion, have all of them very near the same co-effi- 
cient of friction, being in all cases included between 07 
and 08. 

The co-efficient for the urgent, tallow, is the same, 
except in that of metals upon metals. This substance 
seems to be less suited for metallic substances than the 
other, and gives for the mean value of its co-efficient, 
under the same circumstances, 10. Hence it is evident, 
that where the extent of the surface sustaining a given 



AND MILLWRIGHT S ASSISTANT. 



29 



pressure is so great as to make the pressure less than 
that which corresponds to a state of perfect separation, 
this greater extent of surface tends to increase the fric- 
tion, by reason of that adhesiveness of the urgent, de- 
pendent upon its greater or less velocity, whose effect is 
proportioned to the extent of surface between which it 
is interposed. 

Such is a description of the experiments founded by 
M. Morrin, under the orders of the French government, 
to determine those laws of friction above alluded to. 

The following Table shoios the result of those experiments 
on the friction of unctuous surf aces ; meaning surfaces 
without artificial means reducing the friction. By 
M. Morrin. 





GO-EFFICIENT OF FRICTIOX. 


SURFACES OF CONTACT. 


Friction of 
motion. 


Friction of 
quiescence. 


Oak upon oak, the fibres being parallel 


0.108 

0.136 
0.330 
0.160 
0.177 

6.143 
0.107 
0.144 
0.132 
0.107 
0.134 
0.115 
0.229 
0.244 


0.390 


Oak upon elm, fibres parallel 


0.420 


Beech upon oak, do 








Do "wroufflit iron 




Do. 'cast do 


0.118 


Cast iron upon wrought iron 




Do. oak 


0.100 










Brass upon cast iron 








Yellow copper upon cast iron 




Leather, well tanned, upon cast iron, wet, 
Do. brass, do.. 


0.267 



30 



THE AMERICAN MILLER, 



Table 

Of the Results of Experiments on Friction with Urgents 
By M. MoRRiN. 





CO-EFFICIENT OF FRICTION. 




SURFACES OF CONTACT. 


Friction of 


Friction of 


URGENTS. 




motion. 


quiescence. 




Oak upon oak, fibres parallel, 


0.164 


0.440 


Dry soap. 


Do. do. 


0.075 


0.164 


Tallow. 


Do. do. 


0.0G7 




Hog's lard. 


Do. fibres perpendicular, 


0.083 


6.250 


Tallow. 


Do. do. 


0.072 




Hog's lard. 


Do. do. 


0.250 





Water. 


Do. elm, fibres parallel, 


0.036 





Dry soap. 


Do cast iron 


0.080 
0.098- 




Tallow. 


T)n Tcvrmo'Tit ivoTi 


Tallow. 


"P.lm imnn f^a.st, ivon 


0.066 




Tallow. 


Wrought iron upon \ fibres 

oak, j parallel, 


0.256 


0.649 


r Grease & 
t water. 


Do. do. 


0.214 




Dry soap. 


Do. do. 


0.085 


6. 108 


Tallow. 


Do. elm, do. 


0.078 


....... 


Tallow. 


Do. cast iron 


0.103 




Tallow. 


Do. wrought iron. 


0.082 





Tallow. 




0.103 
0.075 




Tallow. 


Do. do. 


Hog's lard. 


Do. do. 


0.078 




Olive oil. 


Cast iron upon cast iron 


0.314 




Water. 


Do. wrought iron. 




6.166 


Tallow. 


Do. brass 


0.103 




Tallow. 


Do. do. 


0.075 




Hog's lard. 




0.058 






Do cast iron 


0.086 
0.081 


0.106 


Tallow 


Do. wrought iron 


Tallow. 


Yellow copper upon cast iron. 


0.072 


6.103 


Tallow. 


Steel upon cast iron 


0.105 


0.108 


Tallow. 


Do. do. 


0.079 




Olive oil. 


Do. wrought iron 


0.093 




Tallow. 




0.056 




Tallow. 







AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 31 

Professor Morrin does not state the amount of press- 
ure used in the state of quiescence by which he found 
those results, or the motion used; consequently, we may 
safely infer them to be the same in each particular case, 
for both tables, with the urgents and without. 

The extent of the surfaces in these experiments bore 
such a relation to the pressure, as to cause them to be 
separated from one another throughout, by an interposed 
stratum of the urgent. 

Those experiments prove of great advantage to the 
mechanic, particularly the machinist, as by them we 
find the mode of regulating the different substances 
which produce the least friction. 

By referring to the first table, we discover the best 
kinds of metals which should be used for journals and 
journals bearings, as brass and cast iron, by experiment, 
prove to produce the least friction without any urgent. 
And, by reference to the second table, we find the ur- 
gent which, by its use, we can reduce the friction to the 
lowest point in all kinds of machinery — namely, olive 
oil. Another important point, which must naturally be 
considered by the machinist, in connection with the sub- 
ject of reducing friction in all kinds of machinery, to 
produce the best results, a due regard should be paid to 
the size of the bearings or journals, as the strength of 
all revolving shafts are directly as the cubes of their 
diameters, and inversely as the resistance they have to 
overcome. 

Mr. Buchanan, in his essay on the strength of shafts, 
gives the following from several experiments, viz. : — 



82 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

That the flj-wheel shaft of a 50 horse-power engine, at 
50 revolutions per minute, requires to be 7 J inches 
in diameter, and the cube of this diameter, being 
equal to 421,875, serves as a multiplier to all other 
shafts in the same proportion; and, taking this as as- 
certained, he gives the following multipliers, viz. : 
for the shafts of steam-engines, water-wheels, and all 
others connected with the first power, as 400 for shafts, 
in mills, leading from the water-wheel or first mover ; 
to drive small machinery, 200 ; for the smaller shafts 
which lead from the main uprights, 100. The rule 
being that the number of horses' power a shaft is equal 
to is directly as the cube of the diameters and number 
of revolutions, and inversely as the above multipliers, 
so should the size of the journals be. 

Some employ 340, instead of 240, as the multipliers, 
which gives too great a diameter to journals of second 
movers ; and it should be remembered that these rules 
relate entirely to the size of the journals where the 
power applied is not more than 50 horse. The diame- 
ters of second movers may be found from those of the 
first, by multiplying by 8, and those of the third 
movers, by multiplying by 793, respectively. 

One kind of material may resist much better than 
another one kind of strain, but expose both to a difier- 
ent kind of strain, and that which was weakest before 
may now be strongest. This, for illustration, is the 
case between cast and wrought iron; the cast being 
stronger than the wrought when exposed to twisting or 



AND MILL^YRIGHT'S ASSISTANT. 33 

torsional strain; but malleable iron is tbe strongest 

when exposed to lateral pressure. 

We here give the results of a few experiments on the 

weight necessary to hoist journals of an inch in diameter 

close to their bearings : — 

Metals. Pounds. Ounces. 

Cast steel 19 9 

Cast iron 9 7 

Blister steel 16 11 

Wrought iron 10 2 

Swedish iron, wrought 9 8 

Hard gun-metal. 5 

Brass vent 4 10 

Copper, cast 4 5 

The above rules are worthy the notice of all ma- 
chinists, as much of that beauty pertaining to me- 
chanical structure, depends on the proper proportioning 
of the magnitude of materials to the stress they have 
to bear, and what is of far more importance, its absolute 
security. It is a well-known fact, that a cast-iron rod 
will sustain more torsional pressure than a malleable 
iron rod of the same dimensions. When the strength 
of a malleable iron rod is less than that of cast iron to 
resist torsion, it is stronger than cast iron to resist 
lateral pressure ; and that strength is as the proportion 
of 9 to 14. 

From these rules, it is easy for any millwright to 
make his shafts of iron best suited to overcome the re- 
sistance of friction, or any other material impediment 



34 

to whicli they may be subject, and to proportion the 
diameters of the journals according to the iron of which 
they are made. The diameter of a malleable iron jour- 
nal, to sustain an equal weight with a cast iron journal 
of 7 inches in diameter, requires to be 6.04 inches in 
diameter. 

Square bars, with a journal of one inch in diameter 
and one-fourth of an inch in length, gave the following 
results : Wrought iron, Ulster Co., New York, twisted 
with 326 lbs., and broke with 670 lbs. Wrought iron, 
Swedes, same length of lever in all cases, being thirty 
inches, twisted with 367 lbs., and broke with 615 lbs. 
Cast iron broke with 436 lbs. The diameters for light 
journals should be found by multiplying the diameters 
ascertained by the above rules, by 8 and 793, respect- 
ively. 

The rules embraced in the following table will be 
found of incalculable value to the millwright, in ascer- 
taining the proper size of all journals, beginning with 
the smallest size first movers, of the power of from 4 to 
60 horse, and revolving from 10 to 100 revolutions per 
minute, and having 400 for their multiplier : 



AND MILLWRIGHT S ASSISTANT. 



35 



05 0nai4i^*^COOOtOtOi-*i-'t-»i-i|-i 


Horse 
power. 




CO CO t>5 to J-' h-i p O CO CO 00 pD ;<! ^ -1 p p p CTt Oi 
Ci'tPKOi —j'tf^ ^^ CO ^JCOcOhf^tOCOCSCOCobl 







t-l 






tOK-'H-'pOpcOOOQ0^1^I^IOi0105010^CnCnh<i>. 

*^' bioxGocobxI-'coaitocobsco' bobiJ-'bo 


CJi 




p p p p CO GO 00 00 ^ ~a ^ p p p^ pi Cri Cri O^ rf^ *>. 
00 "^(x ' ^ CO CO *^ " rfx en f-i ^ CO CO ^ en fco " ^ en 


g. 


p p p p QC GO ;<I ^ ~a ;<! p p p p p en j;^ tf^ _rf^ f^ 

bocotoboi^corf^to* bstococscn' coojk^x' 


^ 


"^ 


p p p p 00 ;-j -a -a p p p p en _en p jfi. rfi. rfi^ rfx CO 

CO ^ * ^ CO CO ^(^ 'k-i OS 05 to CO Oi to ' 00 C5 i^ H^ ^ 


g 


pppP7<l^^pppppprf^rfi.hfi.kfi.rf!..p CO 

bo bi ►-' bo ^ H-i bo '►?>. k) bo bi "rf^ o bo bi *i. v-' CO bo 


CO 


g 

as 


ppp^^^ppppenenenh;s^rf5-*^rfi.rfi.coco 
bskf^ bil4^H-'boco*coboa5*>-to^bx^P».to' -<ibi 





1 


pp^i^^pppencnpenen*^h;i^rfi.Nfi>pcoco 
Lo " bo rfi. ^-' CO 05 ' ^ OS '*i> to * 05 rf^ to * CO bi CO 


^ 


>?. 


^^^^^lpPpppppjf^Kr-kfi-*«-pPPP 

^ bi >fi^ " to ^ bi CO 05 4^ to ' bo ji^ to '^-^ CO ^ bx to 


§ 


^ 

g 


;<I ^T ^l p p p p p p p p rfi. rf^ *^ j*:^ h(ii. p p CO CO 
C5 'h|i^ CO bo CD bi CO 05 *. to ' on 05 io ^-' ' ^ OS CO "k-" 


CJi 

01 


2i 

1 


^^^po5pppppjfi.rfi.h;^*.-j^cocopcoco 

rfi'&3tO^^COf-'4xtO bo^P>.^ti-^-'' cobsb^co" 


s 


^-vipppo5enenenrf^rf2>-h*^f4i'rf^cococococoto 
cotocDbTb5i— 'cobTH-'co--.T*^co* cobobob^tocD 


^ 


;-a -1 p p p on p px p rfx *^ 4^ rf^ p p p p p p to 

io bocorfi.co^4t>-' bob5Coi:oco-<r-<r^ht^H^co 





Oi Oi Oi Oi p p p p *^ rf^ ^^^ _rf^ j*^ p p p p p p tO 

CO -<i ^ to lo ^1 05 CO bo --a bi to ^-i bo ^T 05 bi to ' bo 


01 


aiaic^p>a::<p^cnp\ tt^ jt^ jk h(^ ji^ p p p p p p to 

bo 05 bl h-i ■ 05 *^ to C5 05 rfi^ U ' ^ C5 br *- i-o ' ^ 


§ 


pppppppprfi-j^rfi-rfi-pppppptOtO 
^ bi '^f^ ' CD on OO 'kJ 05 bi v;^ ' CO 05 05 on 05 to CO 05 


g 


00 


Gi p, Oi Oi on p p p j(i^ rf^ ^I^ rf^ p p p p p p to to 

b5botocobotuto" bxrf^co" ho hi h^ It^ l(^ ' cdc5 


g 






to 

en 




p p p p p on pn jti^ rfi. rf:^ Mi. p p p p p p to to to 

tOH-'co^bsfco* b5i^tOh-»bob5lji.cobotoco^bi 


i 





This table is calculated in inches and 12ths of an 
inch, and suited for mills and steam engines of all de- 
scriptions. 



We have thought proper, in this place, to insert a 



36 



THE AMERICAN MILLER, 



correct table of the diameters and circumferences of 
circles, in inches, from 1 foot to 30, together with the 
area and side of equal square, which the millwright 
will find very convenient for all practical purposes : 



Tahle of the Circumferences of Circles, Areas, and Side 
of Equal Square. 



Diame- 
ters. 


Circum- 
ferences. 


Area. 


Side of 
Equal 
Square. 


Diame- 
ters. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Feet. 


12 


37.699 


110.097 


10.634 


8 


13 


40.840 


132.732 


11.520 


9 


14 


43.982 


153.938 


12.406 


10 


15 


47.124 


176.715 


13.293 


11 


16 


50.265 


201.062 


14.179 


12 


17 


53.407 


226.980 


15.065 


13 


18 


56.548 


254.469 


15.951 


14 


19 


59.690 


283.529 


16.837 


16 


20 


62.832 


314.160 


17.724 


16 


21 


65.793 


346.361 


18.610 


17 


22 


69.115 


380.133 


19.496 


18 


23 


72.256 


415.476 


20.384 


19 


24 


75.398 


452.390 


21.268 


20 


25 


78.540 


490.875 


22.155 


21 


26 


81.681 


530.930 


23.041 


22 


27 


84.823 


572.556 


23.927 


23 


28 


87.964 


615.753 


24.813 


24 


29 


91.106 


660.541 


25.699 


25 


80 


94.248 


706.860 


26.586 


20 


81 


97.389 


754.769 


27.472 


27 


82 


100.531 


804.249 


28.358 


28 


83 


103.672 


855.30 


29.244 


29 


84 


106.814 


907.92 


30.131 


30 


35 


109.956 


962.11 


31.017 




36 


113.097 


1017.87 


31.903 




48 


160.796 


1309.56 


42.537 




60 


188.496 


2827.44 


53.172 




72 


226.195 


4071.51 


63.806 




84 


263.894 


5541.78 


74.440 





Circum- 
ferences, 



In 

3i 
5 

6| 
8f 
10 



111 

If 

8 

4f 

6-^ 

61 



Area in 
feet, and 
of 1000 



Feet. 

60.265 
63.617 
78.540 
95.003 
113.097 
132.732 
153.938 
176.715 
201.062 
226.980 
254.469 
283.529 
314.160 
346.361 
380.133 
415.476 
452.390 
490.876 
530.930 
8i:572.566 
^615.763 
660.521 
706.860 



Side of 
Equal 
Square. 



Ft. In. 

7 Oi 

7 llf 

8 101 

9 8i 

10 7| 

11 6i- 
12- '■" 

13 : 

14 21 

15 Of 

15 llf 

16 10 

17 ^ 

18 71 

19 5i 

20 ^ 

21 3|- 

22 1|- 

23 0^ 

23 11^ 

24 % 

25 8^ 

26 7 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 37 



GEOMETRICAL DEFINITIONS OF THE CIR- 
CLE AND ITS PARTS. 

1. A CIRCLE is a plain figure bounded by a curved line, 
called the circumference, every part of which is equally 
distant from a certain point, called the centre. 

2. The diameter of a circle is a straight line passing 
through the centre, and terminating at the circumfe- 
rence. 

3. The radius, at semi-diameter, is a straight line ex- 
tending from the centre to the circumference. 

4. A semi-circle is one-half of the circumference. 

5. A quadrant is one quarter of the circumference. 

6. An arc is any portion of the circumference. 

7. A chord is a straight line joining the two extremes 
of an arc. 

8. A circular segment is the space contained between 
an arc and its chord ; the chord is sometimes called the 
base of the segment. The height of the segment is 
the perpendicular from the middle of the base of the arc. 

9. A circular sector is the space contained between 
an arc and the two radii, drawn from the extremes of 
the arc. 

10. A circular zone is the space contained between 
two parallel chords, from their bases. 

11. A circular ring is the space between the circum- 
ferences of two concentric circles. 

12. A lune, or crescent, is the space between two 
circular arcs which intersect each other. 



88 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

13. An ellipsis is a curved line wliich returns into 
itself, like a circle, but having two diameters of unequal 
length, the longest of which is called the transverse, 
and the shortest the conjugate axis. 

Problem. — To find the circumference of a circle, the 
diameter given : — Multiply the diameter by 22, and di- 
vide by 7. Or, for greater accuracy, multiply by 355, 
and divide the product by 113. 

Example : — What is the circumference of a circle, 
whose diameter is 40 feet ? Answer, 125 feet, 6 inches 
and |ths. See table of circumferences of circles, 
page 36. 



CENTEE OF PEKCUSSION AND OSCIL^ 
LATION. 

The centre of percussion and oscillation is the point 
in a body revolving around a fixed axis, so taken, that 
when it is stopped by any force, the whole motion, and 
tendency to motion of the revolving body, is stopped at 
the same time. It is also that point of a revolving 
body which would strike any obstacle with the greatest 
efi"ect, and from this property it has received the name 
of percussion. The centres of oscillation and percus^ 
gion are generally treated separately ; but the two cen- 
tres are in the same point, and therefore their properties 
are the same. As in bodies at rest, the whole weight 
may be considered as collected in the centre of gravity, 
so in bodies in motion the whole^. force may be con- 
sidered as concentrated in the centre of percussion. 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 39 



HYDROSTATICS. 



INTRODUCTION. 

In treating of tlie science of millwrighting, it has 
been thought proper, by some authors, to merely notice 
the science of hydrostatics, by simply pursuing the sub- 
ject under the head of hydraulics, with the assertion 
that hydrostatics treats of fluids in a state of rest only, 
and hydraulics of fluids in motion. The author of this 
work has thought proper to treat of the principles which 
govern both, under separate heads, as pertaining to 
water as a fluid only ; it being the only fluid, in con- 
nection with air, which relates particularly to the mill- 
wright. 

Hydrostatics is a word formed from two G-reek words, 
which signify water and the science which treats of the 
weight of bodies, and, as a branch of natural philoso- 
phy, treats of the nature of gravity, pressure, and mode 
of weighing solids in water. 

Water may be defined as a perfect fluid ; and the less 
force that is required to move the parts of a fluid, the 
more perfect is that fluid, defined as a body. Philoso- 
phers agree, that the particles of the body which com- 
pose water are too small to be examined by the best 



^^ THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

glasses, but that those particles are round and smooth 
as all experience proves that water is composed of smai: 
globular particles. This fact is further proved bj some 
experiments made bj one of the ablest philosophers that 
ever lived, and one of the best mathematicians of an- 
tiquity, Archimedes. He made a globe of gold, and 
filled it with water, and closed it so accurately, that none 
could escape; the globe was then placed into a press, 
and a little flattened at the sides; the power of com- 
pression was applied to force the water into a smaller 
space : but the result was, the water was forced through 
the pores of the gold, and stood upon the surface like 
drops of dew; which fact induced the philosopher to 
establish the idea that water was incom]jressiUe. Which 
fully establishes the fact, that the particles of which 
water is composed are very hard; for if they were not 
so, you can easily conceive, that since there are vacui- 
ties between them, as we assert there are, they must, by 
very great pressure, be brought closer together, and 
would evidently occupy less space, which is contrary to 
fact. 



ON THE UPWAED AND DOWNWARD PEES- 
SUEE OF WATEE. 

Having examined the nature of the fluid, water, 
the next subject of importance is the upward and down- 
ward pressure of the fluid being equal. This principle 
may be easily explained, by the fact that two reservoirs 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 41 

of 18 feet deep each may be connected by a pipe of 
10 inches in diameter ; by filling one of the reservoirs 
with water, opening the pipe so as to allow a free com- 
munication of the water between them, the pipe being 
inserted in the bottom of each, the water will pass from 
one to the other till it stands at the same depth in each. 
Fluids always tend to a natural level, or curve similar 
to the earth's convexity, every point of which is equally 
distant from the centre of the earth; the apparent 
level, or level taken by any instrument for that pur- 
pose, being only a tangent to the earth's circumference. 
The pressure of water is not in a straight line, but is 
propagated in every direction, — upwards, downwards, 
sideways, and oblique ; from which property it always 
tends, when at rest, to a true level. 

The next point of importance, in relation to the pres- 
sure of water, is the influence which exists between water 
and air, and which we denominate as atmospheric pres- 
sure 

It is by the affinity which exists between the fluids, 
water and air, that we can use them as the motive 
power in assisting mankind to accomplish by their use 
what would require the application of animal force for 
mechanical purposes. It is by this principle of the 
pressure of air on water, by which water is raised to the 
height required by means of the common pump. 

The pressure of the atmosphere on the surface of the 
earth rates from 12 to 15 pounds per square inch. To 
illustrate our subject more clearly, we will take up the 
principle of the common pump, the principle being 



42 THE AMERICAN IVnLLER, 

ruled by the pressure of the atmosphere on the water, 
by which we are able to raise a given quantity of water 
to the height of that limited point ; which is, if the 
water in a well be more than 32 or 33 feet from the 
valve, you might pump continually without effect; as 
a column of water 33 feet in height is equal to 15 
pounds, the pressure of the atmosphere on every square 
inch, which results in a perfect equilibrium of the 
fluids ; and in constructing this kind of pump, the valve 
should never be placed to exceed 28 feet beyond the 
level of the water, owing to the change which continu- 
ally take's place in the pressure of the atmosphere. It 
may be proper here to state the comparative difference 
that exists between the specific gravity of water and air : 
one cubic foot of fresh water is 800 times heavier than 
the same quantity of air at the surface of the earth, 
supposing the barometer to stand 30 inches in height. 

Without this principle of natural philosophy, which 
treats of the pressure of the air, there would be no such 
thing as the downward and upward pressure of fluids, by 
which we are able to use them beneficially in all mechani- 
cal operations. 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 

Before we enter upon the methods of obtaining the 
specific gravity of bodies, it will be right to premise a 
few particulars, which it is necessary should be well 
understood. We must first understand that the specific 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 43 

grayitj of different bodies depends upon the different 
quantities of matter which equal bulks of these bodies 
contain. As the momenta of different bodies are esti- 
mated by the quantities of matter when the velocities 
are the same, so is the specific gravity of bodies esti- 
mated by the quantities of matter when the bulks or 
magnitudes are the same. As the relative weight of 
any body of a certain bulk is, compared with the 
weight of some body, taken as a standard, of the same 
bulk, — the standard of comparison being water, one 
cubic foot of which is found to weigh 1000 ounces 
avoirdupois, at a temperature of 60 degrees Fahrenheit, — 
so the weight expressed in ounces of a cubic foot of any 
body, will be its specific gravity. 

To determine the specific gravity : If a body be a ^ 
solid heavier than water, weigh it fii'st in air, note the 
weight ; then immerse it in water, and note this weight 
also ; then divide the body's weight in air by the differ- 
ence of the weights in air and water, and the quotient 
is the specific gravity of the body. If it be a solid 
lighter than water, tie a piece of metal to it, so that the 
compound may sink in water ; then, to the weight of 
the solid itself in air, add the weight of the metal in 
water, and from this sum subtract the weight of the 
compound in water, which difference makes a divisor to 
a dividend, which is the weight of the solid in air; then 
the quotient will be the specific gravity. If the body 
be a fluid, take a solid, whose specific gravity is known, 
that will sink in the fluid ; then take the difference of 



44 



THE AMERICAN MILLER, 



the weights of the solid in and out of the fluid, and 
multiply this difference by the specific gravity of the 
solid ; then this product, divided by the weight of the 
body in air, will give the specific gravity of the fluid. 

On this principle, we have inserted a table of specific 
gravities. The columns, ^' specific gravity,'^ represent 
the weight of a cubic foot in ounces avoirdupois. 



Talle 


of Sj)ecific Gravities. 






Specific 
gravity. 




Specific 
gravity. 


Distilled water . . . 

Sea water 

Platina 

Standard gold. . . . 

Mercury 

Standard silver. . . 

Lead. 

Brass 

Copper 

Tin...... 

Cast iron ....... 

Bar iron 

Zinc 


1.000 
1.026 

23.000 
17.486 
13.560 
10.391 
11.352 
8.396 
7.788 
7.291 
7.207 
7.788 
7.191 
3.290 
2.700 
1.825 
1.250 
0.940 
0.900 
0.925 
0.800 
0.812 
0.755 


Elm 

Cork 

Cast steel 

Wax. 

Tallow 


0.600 
0.240 

7.833 
0.897 
0.943 


Olive oil 

Vitriol 

Apple tree 

Mahogany, Span. . 

Boxwood 

Logwood 

Ebony 

Lignumvitae 

Of Gases. 

Hydrogen 

Carbon 

Steam of water. . . 
Carburetted Hyd. 

Azote 

Oxygen 

Nitric acid 


0.915 
1.841 

0.793 
0.852 
0.912 
0.913 
1.331 
1.333 


Flint glass 

Marble 

Ivory 

Coal 

Oil 

Oak, American . . 
Oak, English.... 

Ash, white. ..... 

Ash, black ...... 

Maple, hard 


0.0694 
0.4166 

0.481 

0.9722 

0.9723 

1.1111 

1.218 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 45 

The specific gravity of atmospheric air, at a tempera- 
ture of 60 degrees Fahr., and barometric column 30 
inches, is, according to experiments, proved to be 1.22, 
which shows water to be 800 times heavier — the air 
being at its greatest density. 



HYDEODYNAMIC POWER OF WATER- 
WHEELS. 

Under the head of that science called Hydrodynamics, 
we shall discuss the most important principles of water, 
as applied by the millwright for propelling machinery, 
in the various modes of application, by the use of the 
water-wheel— an engine of real mechanical utility. To 
construct a water-wheel by which we may use water to 
its greatest effect in propelling mills of various kinds, a 
thorough knowledge of the sciences of hydrostatics and 
hydrodynamics is indispensable to the millwright; and 
without the knowledge of those laws of natural philoso- 
phy which these sciences illustrate, the millwright is in- 
competent to use water on principles of scientific econo- 
my.^ For a more definite and accurate illustration of our 
subject, we shall denominate those important principles 
as first, second, and third. First principles of all fluids, 
more particularly water, are governed by natural laws; 
second principles are governed by the application of the 
degree of science used in those principles; and the third 
consists in the inventive genius of mankind, as developed 
m the various machines constructed by his hands, by 



46 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

wbicli be uses water as the propelling power of those 
machines. 

Before we speak of the construction of any of those 
machines^ we shall first illustrate two powers, when used 
as such, which are innate principles of the non-elastic 
fluid, water — namely, action and reaction. The latter 
principle, as a power, has been established and acknow- 
ledged by all writers on the subject, whether mechanics 
or philosophers; but its use, in connection with the first 
or direct action of water, is as yet but little known to 
the most enlightened on the subject of hydraulics. 



ON THE ACTION AND KEACTION OF WATER, 
AS APPLIED TO WATER-WHEELS. 

What we mean by the action of water is, the first 
impulse communicated to either a water-wheel or other 
body by being exposed to the force of a column of water 
from any perpendicular height; and if that force be 
communicated with that body at right angles, the effect 
by impulse will be the greatest. It is by the action of 
impulse alone, undershot water-wheels are propelled. 
The reactive power of water is obtained by the whirling 
vortex of the water, and only obtained by a wheel made 
suitable to the motion of the water, when used in con- 
nection with the direct action of water on a wheel made 
expressly to suit those two actions of the fluid. For all 
purposes where motion is required in the various me- 
chanical engines, the greatest power possible can be ob- 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 47 

tained bj water applied in this manner. The direct 
action of water bj impulse, when applied to a wheel 
receives a change of motion by the resistance of the 
burden to be overcome. As the stroke by impulse is 
communicated to the bucket of the wheel, only one-half 
of the power of the column of water is received, until 
the other action is communicated from the wheel to the 
body of water in which it stands. But as soon as the 
wheel moves, it forms a whirling vortex, which acts in 
a contrary direction to the jBrst action of the water by 
impulse; consequently, by this means we receive a 
double action of the same water, which gives a double 
power. 

But the only difficulty existing is the want of proper 
knowledge, by the millwright, how to construct a water- 
wheel so that those two powers may be united, as they 
Bhould be, to form a perfect action on two separate sections 
of the water-wheel. As it is impossible to combine direct 
action and reaction on the same section or bucket, hence 
the reason why so many have failed in their purpose in 
the use of the reaction water-wheel. Within the last 
ten or fifteen years, a numerous tribe of reaction waters 
wheels have sprung into existence, all aiming at the 
main object, if possible, to supersede each other in using 
the least complement of water to perform the greatest 
amount of work. But, from a personal examination of 
their construction, I have found that the reaction prin- 
ciple is more fully perfected in the most of them, with- 
out the slightest appearance of a knowledge of any other 
principle but reaction alone. Such wheels are only 



48 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

adapted to streams wbere there is no necessity for eco- 
nomy in tlie use of water. I have seen other wheels, 
again, where the opposite principle was the only one 
used; and, in back-water, could not he used at all. 
The latter kind is acted upon by the impulse of the 
water only, and only produces, like the undershot wheel, 
half of the effect due to the water used. To unite direct 
action and reaction on the same wheel, the buckets re- 
quire to be shaped as different as the action of the water 
is different and contrary ; for the action by impulse of 
the water should act on the wheel in a manner which 
will communicate the greatest force, on the section on 
which it acts, by its stroke ; and in all cases the sur- 
face of the upper buckets should be equal in area to the 
column of water acting against them. 

The reaction principle is purely an American inven- 
tion for using water on wheels, and was exported from 
America to Europe about the year 1828, according to 
an account of the introduction of this principle of reac- 
tion, as we find it noticed at some length in a scientific 
journal published in Paris; and, from the description, 
we suppose it to be the first American model, as invented 
by Ferguson about the year 1828. The wheel is exten- 
sively used in France, and called there the tourhillion^ 
or turbine water-wheel, and derives its name from the 
principle by which the power is obtained — namely, the 
whirling vortex. But I discover they continue the same 
error in France, as well as in America, in applying the 
water to act on those wheels by reaction only, and also 
in applying the water at the centre of the wheel, and 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 49 

Laving the discharge at the verge. This is wrong, and 
contrary to the mechanical principle of using the wheel 
as a lever of the first kind, where the power should be 
used at one end, the weight being at the other, and the 
axis being the fulcrum of central motion. 

We also wish to notice what must be seen by every 
person in its proper light, who will take time to examine 
the subject and test it by experience, as we know it to be 
unphilosophical. It is the mode that many of the inven- 
tors and vendors of reaction water-wheels have, of plac- 
ing them to work onhorizontal shafts, instead of vertical. 
We presume all should be aware, that when a water- 
wheel is working horizontally, the motion tends to de- 
stroy, to a great extent, the reaction power of the water. 
Skeptics to this doctrine very naturally ask, Why ? We 
answer by saying, experience and practice on the sub- 
ject tell, that it is the direction in which the wheel runs 
that the greatest amount of surface of contact is operated 
upon by the water. Those who favour this horizontal 
mode of application tell us, that the distance from the 
centre of the axis on which the wheel is hung, is just 
sufficient to produce the greatest maximum efiPect of the 
reaction power of the water. To this we ^ay, that only 
having one-half of the wheel submerged, you can obtain 
but one-half of the effect of what we call the action of the 
current of the water ; passing, as it does, through the 
drat-boxes or casing in which the wheel runs ; and the 
power of which would be simply in proportion as the 
wheel comes in contact with the water. It must also be 
remembered that the water on those wheels never changes 



50 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

its direction, except wliere the wheel carries it back, which 
is more or less generally the case when the bucket on 
which it acts is constructed on a very short curve. This 
is the case with nine-tenths of the wheels of this descrip- 
tion. In applying the water to the wheel, its action is in a 
tangent with the issue, so that the vortex must be also in 
the same line, and nothing of the whirling motion that 
would take place if the wheel was working in a vertical 
position. To make this subject plainer, we say that a 
horizontal wheel running in a tangent, the water can 
have no other direction (except in the case above referred 
to) than that of a straight line, which the position of 
the wheel describes to contrary lines, which completes 
the formation of the whirling vortex motion given to the 
water by the wheel after the wheel has received the per- 
cussion stroke of the water. This principle makes the 
reaction power perfect, if the wheel is placed to work 
properly, which should be as follows. 



ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE COMBINA- 
TION REACTION WATER-WHEEL, 

And the method of applying the loater for propelling 
it, to produce the greatest e^ 



The great mechanical effect of reaction water-wheels 
is in proportion to the principles of scientific knowledge 
displayed in their construction. To enable us to rank 
them in the order of first-class wheels, from our remarks 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 51 

on the hydrodynamic power of reaction wheels, we have 
endeavoured to explain all the leading principles which 
seem to us to be absolutely necessary for the millwright 
to understand ; so as to give him an adequate idea of the 
groundwork or root of those principles ; and also point- 
ing out all erroneous forms of construction and appli- 
cation of what might be useful, if applied as science 
dictates, in those wheels alluded to in our previous 
remarks. 

The great superiority of the combination of power, in 
applying water on reaction wheels, requires but to be 
seen to be universally adopted and established, in pre- 
ference to the combined and effective power of water 
used on the overshot wheel, the defects in which we shall 
establish under its proper head. In the overshot water- 
wheel, there are but two mechanical principles which 
can be depended upon as effective in their application — 
namely, that of the lever of the second kind, and the 
use of the water by its gravity j while the reaction 
wheel combines thvQe — that is, when the water is ap- 
plied, like the overshot, at the verge. Although differ- 
ing from the overshot in the principle of the lever, as 
the reaction wheel acts as a lever of the first kind, 
which, according to the principle of the lever of the 
first kind, as explained in Mechanics, page 15, whose 
power is as 12 to 1, and the former wheel, according to 
the lever, as explained in Mechanics, page 17, is but 3 
to 1. So much for the advantage gained in favour of 
reaction wheels on the first principle — namely, the 
lever. 



52 

The second principle is the application of the water 
by its gravity and pressure ; the third, the combining 
of the reaction force of the water with the first or direct 
action, as explained on page 46. The proper method 
of constructing a reaction water-wheel to act on those 
principles is as follows : 

First, let the millwright consider what direction is 
best for him to conduct the water on his wheel ; (we 
recommend it to issue from the head at right angles 
with the buckets.) Then we ask, what position should 
the bucket of the wheel be in with the axis of the wheel, 
to receive the greatest effect of the stroke by the direct 
action or percussion power of the water ? We answer, 
transversely ; so that the surface of the bucket next the 
water should describe a perpendicular plane, measuring 
the same width as the aperture through which the water 
issues on the wheel ; then the bucket would meet the 
water at right angles. But the reaction bucket must be 
attached and stand in the form of an inclined plane, 
gradually inclining from its connection with the trans- 
verse bucket, from the lower edge of the top bucket to 
its terminus. The angle of inclination requires to be in 
accordance with the length of the bucket. The greater 
the length of bucket, the greater the angle of inclina- 
tion; but in no case should the inclination be less 
than 45°. 

When the wheel is completed, its bottom should re- 
semble an ordinary screw, the bottom tier of buckets 
forming the thread ; and in placing them to work, they 
should be set over a pit, connecting with the tail-race. 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 53 

at least two feet in cleptli, and the tail-race requires to 
be sufficiently deep that the water from the wheels may 
not be impeded by any unnecessary resistance. For 
mills of four run of stones, where it would be necessary 
to use five of these combination and reaction wheels, the 
tail-raee ought never to be less than twelve feet wide, 
and two feet eight inches in depth. From what we 
learn of the nature of water under the head of Hydro- 
statics, page 39, we find it necessary to construct water- 
wheels out of material that will resist the water's pene- 
trating into the wheel, as it is the case where wood is 
used in their construction. The introduction of cast 
iron is a most essential improvement, inasmuch as the 
resistance from friction is about one-third less than wood, 
besides its great durability ; and where the wheels are 
well protected, by racks placed in the flumes to keep out 
all obstructions, they will last a lifetime. 

This wheel, as described, is the one patented by Mr. 
Lansing, of Indiana, some few years since, and is well 
known to the author of this work as being a superior 
first-class wheel, infinitely superior to the overshot for 
many reasons. , We regret exceedingly not being able 
to furnish drawings of it in time for this volume. 



64 



THE AMERICAN MILLER, 



A TABLE 

Of the Velocities of the Comhination Reaction Water-wheels 
jper minute, from heads of from four to thirty feet, 
calculated at the maximum point of effect, or V)hat is 
generally called the ^^ working point,' ^ being one-third 
less than the greatest velocity of the water, for wheels 
of the following size : 











Diameters, in feet and inches. 








Head. 


2 


2i 


3 


H 


4 


4.1 j 5 


5i 


6 


6i 


7 


7^ 


8 


4 ' 


122 


98 


81 


70 


61 


54 


49 


44 


40 


37 


35 


33 


30 


5 


137 


109 


91 


78 


68 


60 


54 


49 


45 


42 


39 


36 


34 


6 


149 


120 


100 


85 


75 


66 


60 


64 


50 


46 


42 


40 


37 


7 


160 


129 


107 


92 


81 


71 


64 


68 


53 


49 


46 


43 


40 


8 


178 


138 


115 


98 


86 


76 


69 


62 


57 


53 


49 


46 


43 


9 


184 


147 


122 


105 


92 


81 


73 


66 


61 


66 


52 


49 


46 


10 


194 


154 


128 


110 


97 


86 


77 


70 


64 


59 


55 


61 


48 


11 


203 


162 


135 


115 


101 


90 


81 


73 


67 


62 


57 


54 


50 


12 


212 


169 


141 


121 


106 


94 


84 


77 


70 


65 


60 


56 


53 


13 


220 


176 


147 


126 


no 


98 


88 


80 


73 


67 


63 


59 


65 


14 


229 


183 


153 


131 


114 


102 


91 


83 


76 


70 


65 


61 


57 


15 


237 


189 


158 


135 


118 


105 


94 


86 


79 


72 


67 


63 


59 


16 


245 


196 


163 


140 


122 


109 


98 


89 


81 


76 


70 


65 


61 


17 


262 


201 


168 


144 


126 


112 


100 


91 


84 


77 


72 


67 


63 


18 


260 


207 


173 


148 


130 


116 


103 


94 


86 


80 


74 


69 


65 


19 


266 


213 


177 


152 


133 


118 


106 


97 


88 


82 


76 


71 


66 


20 


274 


219 


182 


156 


137 


121 


109 


100 


91 


84 


78 


73 


68 


21 


281 


224 187 


160 


140 


124 


112 


102 


93 


86 


80 


75 


70 


■ 22 


288 


229,191 


164 


143 


127 


114 


105 


95 


88 


82 


76 


72 


23 


294 


234,195 


167 


146 


131 


117 


107 


97 


90 


84 


78 


73 


24 


3O0 


2391199 


170 


149 


133 


119 


109 


99 


92 


85 


79 


74 


25 


307- 


245 204 


175 


153 


136 


121 


111 


102 


94 


87 


82 


76 


26 


313 


249208 


178 


156 


138 


124 


113 


104 


96 


89 


83 


78 


27 


318 


254^212 


182 


169 


141 


127 


116 


106 


98 


91 


85 


79 


28 


324 


259,216 


185 


162 


144 


129 


118 


108 


100 


92 


86 


81 


29 


330 


263219 


188 


164 


146 


131 


120 


110 


101 


94 


88 


82 


30 


335 


268 223 


191 


167 


149 134 


123 


112 


103 


95 


89 


84 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 55 

A TABLE 

Oftlie nwnher of inches of Wafer necessary to drive one 
run of Stones, with all the requisite machinery for 
grist and saw mills, which will he found convenient for 
all practical jpwyoses. Under heads of water from 4 
to 30 feet. 



Height 
of head, 
in feet. 



Size of stone, 
in feet. 



558 460 



5 


363 


1 300 


6 


311 


1 250 


7 


245 


200 


8 


190 


160 


9 


163 


130 


10 


137 


112 


11 


122 


102 


12 


107 


89 


13 


95 


80 


14 


83 


70 


15 


75 


62 


16 


68 


57 


17 


62 


51 


18 


57 


47 


19 


52 


44 


20 


48 


41 


21 


45 


37 


22 


43 


35 


23 


39 


32 


24 


37 


30 


25 


35 


29 


26 


32 


27 


27 


31 


26 


28 


29 


24 


29 


28 


23 


30 


26 


22 



Horse 
power. 



power. 



Number of saws being one. 



The same quantity of wa- 
ter that is here used for a 
four-foot stone is sufficient 
for one saw; and where a 
greater number of either 
saws or stones are required, 
you should double the quan- 
tity in proportion to the 
j number, as in the case of 
four run of stones ; you re- 
\ quire four wheels, with the 
I same number of inches for 
j each size stone, as per table. 
But, in all cases, for mer- 
chant flouring mills, you re- 
quire an extra wheel, which 
all the machinery should be 
attached to, with about one- 
half the power as calculated 
for one run of 4 J feet stones. 



Note.— A horse power is considered equal to 
raised one foot high. 



,000 lbs. 



56 



THE AMERICAN MILLER, 



OVERSHOT OR BREAST WHEELS. 

The following .table shows the required length of 
overshot or breast wheels, on falls from 10 to 30 feet, 
to drive from one to four run of four and a half feet 
stones, with all the necessary machinery for a merchant 
flouring mill. The column marked " Fall'' shows the 
number of feet fall on the breast wheel, or the diameter 
of the overshot. 



Diameter 

of overshot 

in fall. 



10 

11 

12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
20 



Number of run of stones. 



Length 
of wheel 
in feel. 

7 

5| 

5J 
5 

H 

4 
4 

3| 
H 

H 
H 



H 
21 

^ 

2* 



Multiply the number of 
run required by the length 
as stated in the table. 

Example : 

What should the length 
of either a breast or an over- 
shot wheel be, to drive 3 run 
of stones, on a fall of 18 
feet ? Look at 18 feet, the 
height of the head; then 
we have opposite 4 feet 
for 1 run, which, multi- 
plied by 3, produces 12 
feet, the length required. 

The same quantity of wa- 
ter used on the combination 
reaction wheel will suit the 
breast and overshot, begin- 
ning at 10 feet head. 



AND MILLAVIlia tit's ASSISTANT. 67 

It is desirable that the millwright should possess easy 
rules, which will answer the purpose of practice rather 
than theory. The first table will be found acceptable ; 
as it gives the velocity for all the wheels of the reac- 
tion and combination principle, where the water is 
discharged, as it should be, at the centre. 



HOWD'S IMPROVED DIRECT ACTION 

WATER-WHEEL, 

With directions for using the same, hy S. B. Ho WD. 

This is a wheel which, when properly located, is ad- 
mirably adapted for mills of all kinds, working the water 
on the tourhillion principle, being the whirling vortex, 
or better known as reaction principle. 

Its superiority over the old-fashioned reaction wheel 
consists in applying the water on the wheel at the verge 
and discharging it at the centre, by which you use the 
wheel as a lever of the first kind, instead of applying 
the water at the centre and discharging it at the verge, 
as by the old-fashioned reaction, by which its power is 
reduced to the lever of the third kind, and, as a natural 
consequence, takes as much more water to perform the 
same business as the difference in the mechanical prin- 
ciples of the lever vary from each other. 

This wheel can be used to good advantage on low 
sluggish streams, where back water is prevalent. We 
here give a draft of the wheel, made by Stephen Ales, 



58 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

and used by him, with directions for making the same, 
by Mr. Howd, the original inventor. 



DIRECTIONS 

For making the several parts of Howd' s Latest Improved 
Water- Wheel, and setting it up. 

Submerge the wheel so that no part of it will be 
above the water in low water. The stepping should be 
concave and convex, the concave in the shaft. The 
stepping should be from 4 to 6 inches in diameter, the 
convex should be made of hard maple, well seasoned ; 
make it in a proper shape, then let it soak in tallow at 
least three days, blood warm ; let the tallow cool before 
you take it out; then bore several three-eighth holes, be- 
ginning without the knot, in two or three places, upon 
a curvilinear line running to the periphery of the step; 
fill them with bar lead; make the concave of cast iron 
highly polished. 

The disk should be made of two-inch plank, double- 
face it on both sides, and firmly pin them together. 
Spot it on the under side in the centre, bolt it fast to the 
flange of the eye on the upper side, then hang it on the 
shaft, on a false step ; scribe the top and bottom, work 
off" the top, strike your circle for the out edge of the 
risers, work it off" bevelling under half inch; lay out the 
places for the risers, unhang it, turn it over, work off 
the bottom, turn it back, put on the risers; let in the 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 59 

laps of the lower rims of the water-wheel ; bore for the 
bolts that hold the wheel to the risers, mark the cants, 
and let them bj. 

The directions given above are intended where an iron 
shaft, iron eye and flange are used, whereby the disk is 
attached to the shafts. 

When a wooden shaft is used, the form of making 
the disk and attaching it to the shaft should be varied. 
Dress your planks on one side and pin them together 
slightly, then work on some plank from four to six 
inches thick, on the under side in the centre, at least 
one half the diameter of the disk, bevelled up to an 
edge, and firmly pin the whole together. 

Hang the disk with reference to the under side. It 
is necessary that the disk should be hung as low down 
on the shaft as possible, and in such a manner as will 
prevent it from working up and down ; in order to do 
this efficiently, four or more straps of iron with a hook 
on one end, should be firmly spiked on to the shaft with 
hooks as low down as you wish to hand the bottom of 
the disk, then wedge it from the upper side and fasten 
the wedges in by means of pins inserted into the shaft 
through the upper end of the disk and through the 
wedges on an angle of about forty-five degrees, then work 
off" the top and periphery, as above described. 

The above directions would require a model of the 
wheel and its parts, to give an adequate idea of con- 
structing it, without which no millwright who may not 
be acquainted with the wheel should be expected to 
construct one perfectly. 



k. 



60 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

The draft accompanying this article gives a full view 
of the wheel with the exception of the disk or top part. 
As to the number of buckets necessary for a wheel, it is 
left entirely to the option of the millwright, as experi- 
ence teaches that the more water you wish to discharge, 
the more buckets will be necessary — from eight to 
twenty-four. Mr. Howd recommends the number of 
schutes in a wheel of seven and eight feet in diameter, 
to be twenty-four. 



HENRY YANDEWATER'S WATER-WHEEL. 

This wheel is offered to the milling public at Jagger, 
Tredwell & Perry's Eagle Foundry, Albany, New York, 
who manufacture it to order, suiting all kinds of water- 
powers, from heads of five to twenty-eight feet fall. This 
invention of a water-wheel, for either flouring or saw mills, 
is of great importance to the milling public, as it will 
be seen, by the accompanying table, that it equals in 
power the overshot wheel in locations where many, who 
have no knowledge of this wheel, would place the over- 
shot with the supposition that they had the best kind 
that could be used. By examining the hydrodynamic 
principle of the wheel, they will readily admit the cor- 
rectness of this statement. From the operation and 
practical working of this improvement, we feel assured of 
our own correctness on the subject. The power of water 
by direct action, combined, as it is, with the turbine 
principle, renders a combination of the two greatest 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 



61 



known powers of water as a fluid in the science of hy- 
drodynamics. This wheel is made in the most durable 
manner, being constructed entirely of cast and wrought 
iron. Having personally examined the pattern-list of 
the Eagle Foundry, I found it well supplied with all 
kinds of patterns, particularly suited for millers and 
millwrights to select from. 

All those wishing information respecting the right to 
use this wheel, may address the inventor, 147 Pearl 
street, Albany, New York. 



f^ 


ipe" imn 




^ ==^K 


^ 


^t=^^. 


6 


1 


^«^ 


. "^^^ 



This is a perspective view of the wheel. A, showing the 
outside and inside of the buckets ; and B, the inside form, or 
schutes. The arrow indicates the course in which the water is 
taken to the wheel. 



62 



THE AMERICAN MILLER. 



HENEY VANDE WATER'S WATER-WHEEL. 



Head of 
water. 


4 foot wheel, 

using 61 inches 

of water, will 

grind, 


5 foot wheel, 

using 108 inch. 

of water, will 

grind, 


6 foot wheel, 

using 225 inches 

of water, will 

grind, 


7 foot wheel,' 

using 400 inches 

of water, will 

grind, 


Feet. 


Bushels wheat 
per hour. 


Bushels wheat 
per hour. 


Bushels wheat 
per hour. 


Bushels wheat 
per hour. 


5 


3 


5 


12 


21 


6 


4 


7 


16 


28 


7 


5 


9 


20 


35 


8 


6 


11 


24 


42 


9 


7 


13 


28 


49 


10 


8 


15 


32 


56 


11 


9 


17 


36 


63 


12 


10 


19 


40 


70 


13 


11 


21 


44 


77 


14 


12 


23 


48 


84 


15 


13 


25 


52 


91 


16 


14 


27 


56 


98 


17 


15 


29 


60 


105 


18 


16 


31 


64 


112 


19 


17 


33 


68 


119 


20 


18 


35 


72 


126 


21 


19 


37 


76 


133 


22 


20 


39 


80 


140 


23 


21 


41 


84 


147 


24 


22 


43 


88 


154 


25 


23 


45 


92 


161 ' 


26 


24 


47 


96 


168 


27 


25 


49 


100 


175 


28 


26 


51 


104 


182 



PART SECOND. 

REMARKS ON THE CULTURE OF GRAINS, 

Which form the Staple Breadstuffs of the United States, 

There is no country on this globe which is so well 
adapted for the cultivation of wheat and Indian corn 
as the fertile soil of the United States, — the quality of 
which seems to be highly impregnated with those nu- 
tritious substances so necessary to the production of 
these two cereal grains. Consequently, the high repu- 
tation which American breadstuffs sustain in foreisn 
markets enables the American miller to riyal all com- 
petition in the manufacture of breadstuffs, either in 
quality or quantity; as the surplus quantity of grain, 
annually grown in the United States, bids fair to sur- 
pass all the dependencies of European cultivation. 

Not many years ago, and as late as the year 1839, 
large quantities of grain were imported from Europe to 
the United States, and sold to good account, — being 
manufactured in the Atlantic cities. At the period re- 
ferred to, the " Grreat West" was comparatively un- 
known, and the boundary of western civilization was 



64 THE AMERICAN MILLER; 

supposed to exist, by our Eastern brethren, in rather a 
limited degree, somewhere within the confines of the 
state of Illinois — it being but about four years previous 
that it was exchanged from savage wilds to the beautiful 
and cultivated home of the agriculturist, which it now 
presents. But, such is the progress of American enter- 
prise, with the advantages held out by the general go- 
vernment to the actual settler, in disposing of the public 
lands at the low price of one dollar and a quarter per 
acre, in the different states, those lands, in a few years, 
have increased from 100 to 500 per cent, from first cost, 
according to their location. This is what enables the 
American farmer not only to drive all competition from 
our shores, but to compete successfully in the markets 
of Europe with our foreign rival ; and settles the fact, 
beyond a doubt, that America is destined to be the 
granary of the world. 

The advantages to the miller are also very great. 
The Western states, whose luxuriant soil produces the 
finest quality of grains in the world, also afford ample 
water-power for the manufacture of the same, which 
constitutes a mutual benefit both to the farmer and mil- 
ler, — as it makes a home-market for the grain of the 
latter ; and there is no branch of business which the 
farmer receives so much benefit from, as he does from 
that which always pays bim the full equivalent, in cash, 
for his produce, when delivered at the mill. And all 
improvements in the construction of flouring-mills tend, 
also, to the benefit of the producer of the soil, as it re- 
quires less wheat, by one bushe], to the barrel of flour 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 65 

now, than formerly, which makes a profitable saving 
to those of our farmers who have their grain manufac- 
tured on their own account, as many of our Western 
farmers do. 

We here insert a statistical table, showing the amount 
of grain grown in the principal wheat-growing states of 
the Union, for the year 1848 : — 

TABLE OP GRAIN GROWN IN THE UNITED STATES. 

States. Wheat. Indian Corn, 

New York 15,500,000 17,500,000 

Pennsylvania ......... 15,200,000 21,000,000 

Virginia 12,250,000 38,000,000 

Maryland 5,150,000 8,800,000 

Ohio 20,000,000 70,000,000 

Michigan 10,000,000 10,000,000 

Indiana 8,500,000 45,000,000 

Illinois 5,400,000 40,000,000 

Wisconsin 1,600,000 1,500,000 

Missouri 2,000,000 28,000,000 

Iowa 1,300,000 3,500,000 

Texas 1,100,000 1,800,000 

Oregon 1,300,000 1,000,000 

The foregoing table is from the Report of the Com- 
missioner of Patents for the year 1848. In connection 
with this statistical table, of the amount of grain grown 
in the states referred to, we have also prepared a like 
table, showing the amount of capital invested in this 
one branch of business, which will serve to give the 

6* 



66 



THE AMERICAN MILLER, 



reader some conception of the interest the milling busi- 
ness creates in the following states : — 



States. Capital. 
New York.... $8,000,000 

Pennsylvania.. 4,000,000 

Virginia 3,000,000 

Maryland .... 1,000,000 

Ohio 6,800,000 

Michigan 4,060,000 

Indiana 2,100,000 



States. Capital. 

Illinois ..11,800,000 

Wisconsin 1,070,000 

Missouri 1,000,000 

Iowa 300,000 

Texas 175,000 

Oregon 20,000 



ON THE QUALITY OF FRENCH BURR, AS BEST 
ADAPTED FOR GRINDING WHEAT AND CORN. 

There is no description of stone, within our know- 
ledge, that affords so much variety of texture, or that 
is so well adapted for grinding, as that known as the 
^^ French Burr.^' It varies from the closest of quality 
to the openest and poorest of the stone species. 

We shall now, in this chapter, give the necessary 
directions, which, if attended to strictly, will always 
insure the miller, who should always be the person to 
select the quality of mill-stones which will enable him 
to make the best yields, as well as a better quality of 
flour than he can otherwise do on any other description 
or selection of this kind of stone. In the first place, I 
here remark, that every well-informed, practical miller, 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 67 

of at least ten years' experience in the business, must 
be well versed in the different qualities of tbe French 
burr, which, from long practice, his experience tells 
him that which is likely to do the best work, when set 
in order for grinding ; he must be acquainted, also, with 
what is termed the best stock for making mill-stones, 
as the stone is imported from France in blocks of vari- 
ous sizes, which blocks of stone differ as much in colour 
as they do in quality. The first thing to be done, on 
going to the mill-stone manufactory, is to select those 
sized stones you want. By examination, you will soon 
be able to discover whether they suit these directions or 
not; if the stone is of a close appearance, and of a 
white colour, without any yellowish spots in the seams, 
or where the blocks join each other closely fitted, and 
the said seams must be parallel with the diameter, as 
by being so they do not break off the edges of the 
seams, by interfering with the furrows; also, do not 
forget to take a mill-pick, and go over every block, 
which you may do in a few minutes, and if they prove 
of an equal hardness, then we should recommend that 
run as being a good run of stones for grinding wheat 
expressly. If they should prove, after trying them in 
this manner, that some parts of the different blocks of 
which the stone is composed are rather softer, and in- 
cline to be open about the eye^ do not take them, as it 
will take up more time in dressing them, to keep them 
in a good face, than two such run as we have first de- 
scribed. The clear white and sometimes variegated 
stock, resembling marble, is the best description of 



68 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

French burr, for all uses ; as that kind of stock is al- 
ways free and hard, and holds an edge as long as any 
other colour. For grinding corn expressly, stone of a 
different colour may be used best for this kind of grind- 
ing ; I say best, because it is of a keener temper, and 
not so subject to soft, open places, as the stone first 
described. This kind of stock is of a pale, bluish cast, 
and more particularly known to millers for its resistance 
of right good steel ; but, after being dressed, will grind 
more hard corn than any other kind of stone in use. 
Of stone of this quality, we have dressed a large num- 
ber of run for different mills, expressly for flouring, 
which, with judicious management, answer a very good 
purpose ; but I do not recommend this kind, as it re- 
quires a miller of good judgment to superintend in 
dressing them; for, in the first place, if they are al- 
lowed to get at all smooth, they are apt to heat, as well 
as grind wheat oily. In the next place, if they are 
dressed at all rough, they will make very specky flour, 
and grind harsh, — two evils not to be tolerated about a 
flouring-mill ; further, the nature of this kind of burr 
is of a dead, heavy texture, and entirely unfit for steam- 
mills. Where the power is at all varying or unsteady, 
this kind of burr imparts to the flour a kind of grayish 
cast. 

There is also another description of burr-stock which 
I shall here notice, and the worst of all others to the 
miller who has been so unfortunate as to purchase such 
stones with the least reasonable hope that he has got 
good ones. This is a burr of a yellowish colour^ called 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 69 

by some tlie Fox burr, and not at all badly named, as it 
is very deceptive in its appearance. In dressing this 
kind of stone, it resembles a knotty nature, with a good 
inclination to curl as you strike it with the pick. After 
you have ground with it for the space of twenty-four 
hours, take it up, and it has all the appearance of being 
varnished with the best copal varnish, which makes the 
miller sigh for "the good old days of Adam and Eve,'' 
when the gray Laurel Hill Rock Stone were in fashion, 
or what the Virginian miller calls "Nigger Heads,'' 
either of which is preferable to the last described French 
Burr. 

Having treated of the French burr, we shall now di- 
rect our remarks to that of our American production, 
the Raccoon Burr. 



ON THE RACCOON BURR STONE. 

This description of stone is of American production, 
and its geological nativity is confined to the State of 
Ohio, not being known elsewhere. Its locality is in 
Muskingum and adjoining counties, known by the name 
of the "Flint Ridge." This stone is a description of 
burr, and makes a very good substitute for the imported 
or French burr. During my residence in the State of 
Ohio, I was employed by the Messrs. Adams, of Mus- 
kingum county, who do a large business in flouring, 
being the most extensive millers in that part of the 



70 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

State. One of their mills, in which the author was 
employed, was of six run of stones, all of them of Rac- 
coon burr, and, having dressed them, the only conclu- 
sions I drew, from the work the stones made, was, that 
they required to be dressed oftener than the generality 
of the French burr. The reputation of this mill then 
stood high in New York for making a good article of 
superfine flour. The difference in the price between the 
Raccoon and imported being from 35 to 45 per cent, 
cheaper. They are put together in blocks and fitted up 
as the French burr, and will answer a good purpose for 
grist mills, or for grinding coarse grains, such as grist- 
grinding generally consists of, for the use of the farmer. 



DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING NEW STONES FOR 
GRINDING. 

While the mill is in progress of building, the stones 
may be prepared by the miller who is to have charge of 
the running of the mill when completed, as no other 
than the head miller should direct the operation of put- 
ting in the dress ; and any fault in their operation he 
should be held individually accountable for. 

It being necessary to take the stone out of wind before 
the dress is laid out, it may be done in the following 
manner : First, prepare yourself with a good tram staff 
of the following shape ; have your staff dressed four 
inches wide, with a hole through it exactly in the centre ; 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 71 

then frame two posts, two bj three inches wide, at equal 
distances from jour centre hole, and then place a cap on 
the posts in which your elevating screw is inserted, for 
the purpose of allowing the staff to come in contact with 
the stone. In addition to this, there is a plan dif- 
ferent in its construction, which is to use a bar of flat 
iron, of any suitable size, say half an inch thick, by one 
inch wide, or one and a half inch wide ; bend it in a 
circular form, and let it into the staff with screws; 
drill a hole through the centre, exactly in range with 
the hole through the &taff for the elevating screw. 
This description of staff is easier made than that first 
mentioned, and much more easily kept in repair. The 
spindle that the staff works on requires to be an inch 
and a half in diameter and nine inches in length; 
one of this size will work without springing. It will be 
necessary to have these screws, which are to be inserted 
into the staff, in three different sections of the hole which 
the spindle passes through. The object of these screws 
is simply to allow the staff to be trammed or centred to 
the face of the stone, by altering any three of those points 
which the screws represent. By placing your spindle 
properly in the eye of the stone, the screws may be dis- 
pensed with, and also a great deal of trouble in using 
the screw to train the staff, as every time the staff is taken 
off the spindle, in replacing it, the points require to be 
examined and trammed over. If the spindle is properly 
placed in the eye, no objection can be found in using 
the staff without screws, as the main centre for taking 
the wind out of the stone is entirely dependent on 



72 THE AMERICAN MILLER; 

the spindle which the stajff is suspended on; then th 
miller must centre his spindle from the circumference o 
the stone, instead of centreing it by the eye, as many do 
supposing that the eye is always in the centre of th 
stone, which is not always the case. 

Being prepared now to use paint for the staff, whicl 
may be prepared by mixing 2 ozs. of either SpanisI 
brown or Venetian red; the latter is preferable, as i 
shows on the stone better with spirits of turpentine o 
soft water. By means of the screw at the top of th 
spindle, you allow the staff to come down so as t 
slightly touch the stone, by which you work off all the higl 
places, until the stone is perfectly out of wind, and ma; 
be known to be so when it paints the face all ove: 
exactly alike. For new stone, the eye blocks should h 
worked about a sixteenth below the rest of the face 
The next part of the work, being to lay out and draft j 
proper dress, may be done as follows : Before we dismis 
the subject of taking millstones out of wind, we wil 
just refer to another mode ; namely, the using of thre( 
angles laid out on the surface of the stone, and eacl 
angle intersecting the other, which forms a centre b; 
working the lowest angle shown on the stone first to i 
good face, and working the others down to it. This i 
a mode we cannot recommend, as it consumes nearly a 
long again to prepare a stone with this plan as it doe 
with the tram staff, consequently is much more expen 
'sive, and its principles belong to a past generation, bu 
are mechanically correct, and answers in places where i 
tram staff cannot be got readily. 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 73 



DIREC;riONS FOR LAYING OUT THE DRESS IN MILL- 
STONES. 

The first thing we shall notice under this head is the 
amount of draft necessary for your leading furrows. 
This must Ibe varied according to the size and quality of 
your stone. Stones that are close require more than 
open ones, consequently the miller's own experience 
must direct him to define the difi"erence between close 
and open millstones, knowing that open stones have a 
greater amount of draft than close ones. But I have 
found, from my own experience, that there is also 
another essential point to be considered, that is, the 
particular dress you use, as in no quality of stone, either 
close or open, should as much draft be given to a stone 
of any size where a circle dress is used, as may be given 
where the dress is straight. My rule is, for a straight 
dress, in close stone, an inch to the foot of the diameter, 
and three-quarters of an inch with a curve. After you 
have made up your mind on the amount of draft which 
you intend to use, set a piece of board in the eye of your 
stone, which for convenience we will call a draft board; 
then if you wish to use four inches draft, set your di- 
viders four inches, and after you have found the exact 
centre of your stone, place the point of your dividers in 
that centre, and strike a circle on the board, called the 
draft circle. This is the first preparatory step of import- 
ance, the next being to know what way your stone is to 
run, whether with the sun or contrary : if with the sun, 

7 



74 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

you turn your face towards it, going the contrary wa^ 
round the stone, and by placing one end of your patten 
to the draft circle, and the other end on the periphery 
of the stone, you obtain the desired draft for your lead 
ing furrows. The proper rule for finding the distance 
for each of the leading furrows, is to divide the numbei 
of quarters wanted, by the circumference, and the pro 
duct is the distance the leading furrows are apart. Se 
your dividers according to thie product, and space off 
your quarters before striking out your leading furrows 
which will show at once whether your calculation h 
right or not. When your furrows are all made, you ma} 
then complete the face of your stone for grinding grain^ 
by making a perfectly true face on the stones before the} 
are turned down. 

If your stones require to be driven contrary to the 
sun, you lay out the dress by going around the stone ir 
the same direction with the sun. This rule is very sim- 
ple, and capable of saving many mistakes usually made 
by millers, in carelessly drafting the dress to run the 
wrong way. 



A SPECIAL TREATISE ON THE DIFFERENT MILL- 
STONE DRESSES NOW IN USE, WITH PRACTICAI 
REMARKS ON THEIR DIFFERENT ACTION. 

The millstone dress is that draft given to the furrows, 
for the purpose of discharging the meal from the stone^ 
when properly ground. 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 75 

The proper draft or dress^ to be used for this purpose, 
is a matter which involves a great difference of opinion, 
both with millers and millwrights. Generally, the for- 
mer shapes his ideas from personal observation in the 
grinding of the millstone, and the latter from theory 
only ; whereas, by uniting both of these essential prin- 
ciples, more conclusive evidence would be obtained, as 
to the proper dress or draft necessary for the millstone. 

The first principle is the discharge j the next is the 
way to draft that discharge so that the stone, when 
grinding, shall receive its proportional quantity on its 
entire surface, from the eye to the skirt. The difficulty 
to contend with, in this particular, is the variation of 
circular motion that the grain encounters, in passing 
from the eye to the place of discharge ; for, in every 
superficial inch of surface from the eye to the periphery, 
the circular motion increases as the circumference grows 
larger, until the meal is discharged from the stone. So, 
from my own personal experience, I have found this 
the most difficult part of our trade to improve, from the 
fact that the proper draft of the dress, in a millstone, 
is of more importance to the miller than it is generally 
supposed to be, for the following reasons : in the first 
place, mills built on light streams suffer more for want 
of a perfect knowledge of this important part of the 
miller's art, than those situated on large streams. All 
kinds of millstone dresses that curve, require more 
power to drive them than furrows that have no curve ; 
and the more curve or circle, the greater amount of 
power you want to drive the stone. As millers who 



76 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

use circle dresses in preference to all others, will require 
abundant proof on this subject, we hope to give it to 
them ; and if we succeed in enlightening them on the 
main error of all circular dresses, all we ask of them 
is to adopt what science and practical experience prove 
to be the better mode. 

To illustrate this subject more fully, we take a mill- 
stone of four and a half feet in diameter, with a mo- 
tion of 175 to 180 revolutions per minute, and prepare 
it for flouring with a circular dress, with furrows on a 
circle of once and a half the diameter of the stone. I 
pitch on this particular dress to illustrate my views, as 
eight-tenths of all the circular dresses I have examined 
are drafted on this curve. Suppose, then, that this stone 
has a draft at the eye of the lowest number of inches 
generally given, being three and a half inches at the 
centre, I ask, what will the angle be, that the furrows 
will pass each other, from the eye to the periphery ? 
We suppose, that in such a draft above described, the 
angle of the furrows are equal ; this should not be the 
case, when we consider that the central force increases 
as the distance from the centre increases, caused by the 
circumference of every superficial inch of the stone in- 
creasing. We ask, then, how are you to bring the same 
amount of meal on this increasing velocity of the skirts 
of the stone, that you have at the centre, when your 
draft, in both parts of your stone, are alike demonstrated 
by purely scientific principles, being governed by the 
laws of circular motion, on the same principle as above 
described? We affirm, that at least one-twentieth of 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 77 

the pressure used on a stone of four and a half feet 
diameter, making 175 revolutions per minute, grind- 
ing 15 bushels per hour, might be dispensed with, or 
avoided, if the draft or dress was applied in such a 
manner as to decrease as the central force increased, 
which would allow the angle of draft with which their 
furrows cross each other, in inverse proportion to their 
diameters. If the twentieth of the pressure need not 
be used; that is just one-twentieth of the power saved, 
with at least an equal advantage gained of five per cent. 
in the quality of the flour ; as the less pressure used in 
manufacturing, the better the flour after it is manufac- 
tured. This most all will admit. 

With this dress, more time is consumed in keeping 
your stone in proper order, than should be, as all ex- 
perienced millers will readily admit. The skirts of the 
stone with circular dresses are always lower than either 
the breast or eye ; and the smaller the circle used, the 
greater this difficulty will exist, it being impossible to 
give the skirt as much of the meal, with this dress, as 
its relative proportions require. Where a stone four and 
a half feet in diameter is grinding, say 15 bushels per 
hour of wheat, and running night and day, in twenty- 
four hours from the time it was started, the heat caused 
by the great pressure used becomes intense, as it forms 
a scalding temperature, which greatly afi"ects the quality 
of the flour. To test this principle more fully, I have 
compared the degrees of the temperature of the meal 
with this dress, and what is called the old-fashioned 

7* 



78 THE AMERICAN MILLER 



straight quarter, as the meal issued from the stone, and 
found the following result : — 

The circle dress ground the warmest by ten to twenty 
degrees of Fahrenheit; both the same kind and sized 
stone grinding about the same quantity. On two sepa- 
rate examinations of the heat of the meal, the stone 
with the circle dress had 18 leading furrows, and the 
straight quarter 16 ditto. 

Now, by this experiment alone, I do not say that this 
quarter, or straight dress, is the one I should recom- 
mend all millers to use. No, by no means ; as the dis- 
proportion in the draft of its short furrows condemns it 
also. But the experiment went to prove its superiority 
over the circle, which was readily discovered in the 
lively, rich colour of the flour, and the clean appearance 
of the offal. 

The different dresses, as represented on plate 2, are 
all got up from those two, — the circle and straight quar- 
ter dress; and I must say, that their inventors were 
actuated more by a love of variety and novelty, than 
from the dictates of practical experience. For that 
reason, we shall not take time to notice them at further 
length than described in plate 2, — considering it 
no advantage to the miller, although there may be some 
who will value it more than any other dress represented, 
because they have spent more time in getting them up, 
than they have taken to examine the error they have 
made by introducing a combination of artificial drafts 
for millstones, contrary to those laws of circular motion 




MILLSTONES — QUARTER DRESS. 
Plate 2— p. 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 79 

and central forces which govern all kinds of millstone 
dresses, of whatever kind used. 

We shall now present that dress for millstones that 
science and experience show to be best for all sizes of 
stone and varieties of central motion occasioned by the 
revolutions made per minute of the stone. These dresses 
are seen in plate 2. Figs. 1 and 2 represent a perfectly 
straight furrow, one inch and one-eighth in width, for a 
stone four and a half feet in diameter. The number of 
leading furrows should be from 16 to 20, or 21, if the 
stone is more than ordinarily close; I prefer 21. Then 
divide those quarters equally with another furrow each, 
which will give 42 whole furrows, allowing the short 
furrows to enter the leading ones in close stones. This 
dress may be called, properly, the '^ new quarter dress;" 
its superiority over the old 16 quarter dress is apparent 
to all, when we examine the drafts in plate 2, figs. 1 
and 2. 

Millers who may think that there is too much face on 
the skirt, may safely increase the size ol" their furrows 
one-eighth of an inch on the skirt, and in very open 
stones may decrease it accordingly, as well as the num- 
ber of furrows. I have the opinion of several of the 
best millers in the United States, all agreeing on this 
dress as being the best in use. By the use of it, we 
entirely dispense with that short furrow necessarily 
used in the old 16 quarter dress, by giving the short 
furrow in the new quarter dress about the same draft as 
the second furrow in the old, which serves to make the 
flour better, as less pressure is used with the new quar- 



80 THE AMERICAN MILLER; 

ter dress than with the old. The short furrows in the 
16 quarter dress, the angle at which thej cross each 
other being too obtuse to admit of their cutting, as may 
be seen by fig. 2 ; the angle being 84 degrees of draft, 
they push the meal out, and cannot act otherwise. 

With the new quarter dress, as described, I should 
not recommend more draft at the eye of the stone than 
three and a half inches, where its motion is from 160 to 
180 revolutions per minute, for a stone of four and a 
half feet in diameter, with the same proportion, accord- 
ing to the size of the stone. Fig. 1, four and a half 
feet stone, 21 quarters. Fig. 2 represents a stone equal 
to four and a half feet, 16 quarters. PI. 3, stone same 
size, dress on the circle of the stone, with 40 furrows. 



DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING FURROWS ON THE MOST 
. APPROVED PLAN. 

The manner in which furrows are shaped is very im- 
portant, as, in discharging the meal, they will, if not 
properly made, make too many middlings, and allow 
the bran to pass out thicker than it ought to be. 

The proper form, I have found, for them, is a perfectly 
true taper. From the first edge, commonly called the 
track edge, up to the second, called the feather edge, 
and of a depth of three-eighths of an inch at the back or 
first edge, up to a sixteenth part of an inch at the feather 
edge of a new stone, and not deeper than the depth of a 




MILLSTONE — CIRCULAR DRESS. 

Plate 3.— p. SO. 



AND IMILLWHIGIIT's ASSISTANT. 81 

good heavy crack, when your stones are in perfectly good 
face for flouring. 

NoW; much pains in the mechanical construction of 
them may be saved to the young miller by the use of a 
gauge and stafl'. To dress his furrows by the gauge is 
simply the size and shape of the kind of furrows you 
want to make, cut on wood, which will assist you. To 
make all your furrows precisely the same depth, the 
staff is a small, flat rule, four or five inches long, by 
which you can apply paint to your furrows to work 
them even, by which much time is spared, for the paint 
shows you all the high places, so that not one stroke of 
the pick need be lost. 

For flouring, your furrows require to be as smooth as 
the face, as rough furrows make the flour specky. I 
have heard millers object frequently to their bolts not 
being right, when the whole cause lay in the rough 
manner in which their stones were dressed. 



DIRECTIONS FOR STAFFING AND CRACKING THE 
FACE OF THE MILLSTONE. 

Every three months is as often as necessary to dress 
the furrows, but in a mill that does a good business, 
the face of the stone requires cracking as often as every 
four days, the stone running night and day. 

Cracking the face, as it is termed, is an artificial 
mode of cutting the face of a millstone in parallel lines 
with the furrows by which the bran is cleaned ; conse- 



82 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

quently, wten well done, a stone will grind a third 
faster than without the cracked face, and the flour is 
far superior. With stones cracked with about from 26 
to 30 in every superficial inch of the face, reason tells 
us that they need not be pressed so close together. It 
requires a good deal of practice to be perfect in this 
part of the miller's art, but by the use of practice we 
become perfect in this, as well as any other branch of 
the business. 

After the stones are taken up for the purpose of 
sharpening them, the first thing the miller should do is 
to take a soft sandstone, which should be kept for the 
purpose, and rub the face of the millstones all over with 
it. The object of this is to scour the face, which leaves 
it in better order to receive the work you are going to 
put into it. Sweep them off clean, and then apply your 
staff. If your stone should be higher about the eye and 
breast, skin off those places until the staff fits tight all 
over the face of the stone, and crack the balance j then 
your stone is ready for grinding. If you should find 
your stones in good face when you take them up, with 
the paint equally distributed all over the face of the 
stone alike, being the highest about the eye, then the 
stones are considered to be in good face; then crack them 
all over nicely, without breaking the face, which must be 
done with a sharp pick ; then apply a little tallow 
around your spindle-neck, and if the spindle is loose, 
tighten it, and tram your , spindle ; then you may put 
your stones down, as they are in good order for 
grinding. 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 83 



ON THE BEST SIZE OF MILLSTONES FOR DIFFERENT 
WATER POWERS. 

The proper size of millstones is a subject of as much 
consideration and interest to the miller as any other im- 
provement in his business ; and the improvements which 
late years have discovered in this particular are worthy 
of notice in this work. When we look back to the days 
of our youth, and see what other days have brought 
forth in this particular, we are astonished that the many 
simple improvements of the present day were so long 
unknown. 

Not many years since, the size of millstones, as 
thought best by the first millwrights and millers in our 
country, was from five to seven feet ; and numbers of 
those same stones are still in use, and not grinding as 
much per hour as stones of less than one-half their 
diameters, in mills constructed on the scientific prin- 
ciples of the age. 

Stones four and a half feet in diameter are large 
enough for any description of water-power, and larger 
than I should recommend for any water-power over ten 
feet head and fall, as four feet four inches is large snough 
to make, without crowding, 50 barrels of flour per run 
a day, which is a good amount of business for mills of 
four run of stone. 

The great improvement in the difference of the size 
of juillstones — first, consists of reducing the amount of 



84 THE AMERICAN MILLER; 

power used to drive suet large sizes of stone, by cutting 
off that great amount of leverage we had to contend 
against in stones of from five to seven feet in diameter. 
Also, by applying the power so much nearer the centre, 
by increasing the weight of the running stone, by which 
means from twice to five times the amount of grain is 
ground with a less quantity of water. This improve- 
ment, of increasing the weight of the running mill- 
stone, is more in accordance with true mechanical prin- 
ciples of science, and of more value to the miller, as it- 
saves a large amount of capital in the purchase of mill- 
stones and the necessary machinery to put them in mo- 
tion on the old plans of mill-building. 

The advantages of increasing the weight of the run- 
ner, have been fully tested at Chin ton, in the State of 
Michigan, where there is a mill in successful operation; 
the stones being but four and a half feet in diameter, 
and the amount which they grind per run being also 
stated. 



PEACTICAL EEMARKS ON GEINDINa WHEAT AND 
CORN. 

To be a good judge of grinding wheat for flouring, 
the miller must be endowed with one of the five bless- 
ings or senses which nature has endowed mankind with 
generally, — that is, an acute sense of feeling ; for, with- 
out this sense, the miller is destitute of a guide to grind 
wheat for merchant work, in such manner as to realize 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 85 

the greatest possible amount of flour from the wheat, as 
it requires but an alteration of two degrees to make 
a difference of from one to three pounds of flour in 
the bushel. So it is in the different qualities of wheat 
which the miller may have to grind, as some qualities 
of wheat will grind from one to five degrees closer than 
others, owing, first, to the order that each sample ma}'- 
be in when ground, and secondly, to the particular spe- 
cies of wheat. All those causes must be examined by 
the miller ; he will then be prepared to form a correct 
judgment, how close the stone requires to be set on 
each kind of wheat ; as the yield required from every 
60 lbs. of good clean wheat should be such as to pro- 
duce a barrel of superfine flour (capable of passing in- 
spection laws) from every 240 lbs. of merchantable 
wheat, being 49 lbs. of superfine flour for every 60 lbs. 
of wheat. This is a closer yield than the average of the 
different qualities of wheat will run ; and to manufac- 
ture on this yield, the stones require to be kept in per- 
fect order. As the millstones are the entire key which 
regulates the profits of the miller, we think much atten- 
tion cannot be expended more profitably, than that be- 
stowed in keeping them in proper order. 

Much as I have said on the subject of millstones, I 
will also, before leaving the subject, lay down a few 
rules for the benefit of the young miller, as I have once 
been of that class myself, which will enable him to ac- 
quire a more perfect knowledge of keeping the millstone 
in proper order. The worst and most easily detected . 
state a millstone can be in, is when small round and 



86 

hard pieces are discharged, with parts of the meal ground 
close enough ; this is evidence enough that your stones 
are out of face, and working entirely on some high places, 
which prevent the stones running close enough together 
to grind the meal all alike ; they should be instantly 
taken up, and by laying on the staff dry and moving it 
gently over the face, you will soon jSnd those high places, 
which should be skinned off until the staff shows the 
face to be even, by fitting the stone tightly all over its 
surface; which, after a good rubbing with the burr- 
block, your stone will be ready for grinding. 

If, on taking up the stone for examination, you should 
find no high places, but the stone staffing an equal face 
all over, then the fault lies in the furrows being too 
deep, which you can remedy by filling up to a proper 
depth with cement made for that purpose. By reference 
to the index of this work, you will be informed how to 
prepare it. 

To grind corn, you want a very heavy crack in the 
face of the millstone, which shows the necessity of hav- 
ing stone expressly made to order for this particular 
business. Also, furrows answer better by being a little 
rounding, and double the depth of the feather-edge that 
you require for wheat. 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 87 



REMARKS ON INDIAN CORN AS AN ARTICLE OF 
FOREIGN CONSUMPTION. 

Corn is now becoming an article of food for thou- 
sands of the poor class of people of European countries, 
taking as it does the place of their principal food, the 
potatoes, which of late years have suffered from decay 
so much so as to reduce thousands of them to famine, 
disease, and death. These, for want of other food, 
were obliged to use the diseased potato until relieved 
somewhat from suffering starvation by the timely and 
charitable aid rendered by the people of the United 
States of America. 

We say that the corn of America will undoubtedly 
take the place of the potatoes of Ireland, as food 
for the poorer classes, — it being, according to learned 
judges, a more wholesome and a stronger diet than pota- 
toes. This will benefit the American farmers of the 
"Western States, who raise such large quantities of corn, 
and also the American miller — as it will pay always a 
better profit than the manufacture of wheat into super- 
fine flour. The author of this book has recently in- 
vented a simple mode of drying Indian corn so that it will 
keep two years in meal, barrelled. For a full descrip- 
tion, reference may be had to the article, under its pro- 
per head. 



88 



ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE MERCHANT BOLTS 
FOR SUPERFINE FLOUR ON THE OLD PLAN. 

The arrangement that is necessary in the constructing 
of bolts for the merchant flouring mill being such as the 
generality of millwrights do not investigate closely, is 
apparent to those who examine this subject. When we 
consider the fact that wheat is composed of a very thin 
skin, filled with flour, which, if manufactured properly, 
ought to produce the following qualities : superfine flour, 
seconds, ship stufi", and bran, in the first place. Once 
is enough to grind the meal all must admit, but in the 
common way of arranging and constructing the merchant 
bolts, a second grinding becomes necessary. Of that 
quality called middlings, which, when ground a second 
time, the flour is called fine, and is unfit for bread, as it 
is too dry to be palatable, which, if manufactured as it 
should be, the middlings will be too poor to be fit for 
any other use than feed. We will now describe a full 
chest of merchant bolts on the general arrangement, or 
old plan. 

What is called a full chest, consists of two superfine 
reels, which are both fed from the cooler; then, what 
meal is left passes into two other reels, immediately 
under, called the return reels. But I will here notice, 
that only part of those reels are returned back to the 
cooler, the rest of the reels being all there, are to com- 
plete the entire separation and cleansing of the difi'erent 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 89 

qualities. The numbers of the cloth used in this chest 
are as follows: — The superfine reels are about 32 inches 
in diameter, covered with No. 9 cloth ; the lower or re- 
turn reels, the numbers vary from No. 8 (being the 
finest) down to No. 1, and sometimes less, for the mid- 
dlings; which are ground over again, which will come 
from No. 6 or 7, will be too rich unless they are ground 
and bolted over, and even then they will make nothing 
better than fine flour; the length of the reels is about 
18 feet, with a pitch of about a quarter of an inch to the 
foot. Such is a description of the merchant bolts on 
what is called the old plan. We shall now give our 
opinion on this mode of constructing bolts. We must 
condemn the plan, as the middlings are too rich, and it 
also requires more wheat for a barrel of superfine flour 
than is necessary. 

In condemning this arrangement of the merchant 
bolts, we have constructed a chest with the addition of 
but one reel more, which cleans the ofikl much better than 
the chest above described, and saves a second grinding. 



A DESCRIPTION OF A NEW ARRANGEMENT OF THE 
MERCHANT BOLTS ON THE MOST APPROVED 
PLAN. 

The principal improvement of this arrangement of 
the merchant bolts to the miller is its doing away with 
the necessity of grinding over a second time. 



90 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

Our chest consists of four reels, with a separate duster 
for the offals. The mechanical proportions of it are as 
follows : Length of reels, 20 feet; diameter of four reels, 
3 feet each ; diameter of duster, 40 inches. 
. The No. of the cloth to be used as follows : On the 
first two superfine reels, Nos. 8 and 9, the nine being on 
the head, one-half of each on the next two being the 
return reels, Nos. 7 and 8, No. 7 being on the head ; on 
duster first, six feet. No. 7 ; on next, 12 feet. No. 5 ; 
next, two-feet wire of 12 or 16 meshes to the inch. The 
length of the duster being 20 feet on the inside, each 
reel must have a conveyer, with the flights all drafted 
for the same way. The two return reels should return 
the whole length, with a slide left in the bottom of the 
superfine conveyer to draw as far as five feet, for the 
purpose of returning, according as circumstances may 
require. There should be a spout at every six feet of 
the duster, to receive each quality separated by this 
arrangement. The fine cloth on the return reels will 
dust the middlings of the other bolt perfectly clean, 
which will make them too poor for any other use than 
good feed. By the time they arrive in the duster, their 
name is changed from that of middlings to seconds. 
Merchant bolts of this description are capable of dress- 
ing from 150 to 200 barrels of flour per day with the 
greatest ease, which will be large enough for mills of 
four run of stones. The pitch given to the reels should 
be but one-eighth of an inch to the foot. 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 91 



DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING CLOTHS FOR BOLTS OF 
ALL DESCRIPTIONS. 

Bolting cloths should not be cut in making, as they 
last much longer when economy is used in this particu- 
lar. The wide German old anchor brand is the best for 
millers^ use, and is always known by the deep yellow 
tinge and square mark, which the French or American 
manufacture does not show. The width of the ribs 
which the cloth rests on should be lined with coarse 
heavy cotton cloth, and also sewed nicely on to the 
bolting cloth ; also the head and tail end should have a 
piece of the same kind of cloth as above, for nailing them 
fast. The best white sewing-silk should be used, instead 
of thread. In making, they ought not to be made to fit 
the reel too tight, as a tight cloth is apt to suck the 
flour. 



ON THE PROPER SIZE OF MILL-PICKS FOR DRESSING 
STONE. 

Much has been attempted, within the last few years, 
to improve this important tool for the convenience of 
the miller, but all attempts that I have seen I have pro- 
nounced as worthless, in comparison with a pick made 
from the cast-steel bar, as generally used. The size of 
the steel bar ought to be one and one-eighth of an inch 
square ; cut your bar six inches long, and draw it with 



92 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

a true taper from the centre each way. The best cast 
steel should be used for mill-picks; and when your 
picks are done, they should be an inch and a quarter to 
three-eighths wide. At each end the steel should be 
hardened till they show a straw-colour for two inches. 
The blacksmith who sharpens them requires to pay a 
good deal of attention, to prevent the steel from getting 
too hot, as it is easily detected when done; and also 
to hammer them on an anvil that is smooth, to prevent 
the edges from cracking. I have taken a good deal of 
pains to get a recipe for making a composition for tem- 
pering cast steel, which may be found useful. 



COMPOSITION FOR TEMPERING CAST STEEL 
MILL-PICKS. 

It is generally very difficult for the miller to get the 
blacksmith to give the steel its proper temper, from a 
want of a sufficient knowledge on the part of blacksmiths 
generally what that temper should be. We here insert 
a composition for the purpose, which assists the process 
of tempering cast steel, by assisting the steel to retain 
its natural qualities and fineness of temper in opposition 
to the great degree of heat used for drawing and tem- 
pering, as the oftener steel is heated, the more brittle 
become its fibres, which renders it worthless to the me- 
chanic, and more particularly to the miller. 

To 3 gallons of water, add 3 oz. spirits of nitre, 3 oz. 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 93 

of spirits of hartshorn, 3 oz. of white vitriol, 3 oz. of sal 
ammoniac, 3 oz. alum, 6 oz. salt, with a double-handful 
of hoof-parings ; the steel to be heated a dark cherry- 
red. Every miller should keep a large jug of this pre- 
paration in the mill, for tempering his picks in ; also, it 
must be kept corked tight to prevent evaporation. 



ON THE USE OF THE PROOF STAFF. 

The proof staff is made of cast iron, with a perfectly 
true face, and set in a case with a cover to it. It is for 
the purpose of keeping the wood staff, that is used to 
work the stone by, in order ; as, by applying one on the 
other, you will soon detect any error in your stone staff. 
A little sweet oil should be applied on the proof when 
about to try the order which your stone staff is in. Eub 
the face of the iron staff gently with a woollen cloth, 
with a small quantity of oil; then apply the wooden 
one: the oil of the iron staff will adhere to the wood, 
so as to guide to the highest spots. You can face your 
staff much better with this instrument than it is possi- 
ble for a plane to do it, as, in finishing, you use a 
scraper of steel or glass. A proof staff is an article that 
should lie in every flouring mill ; it is as necessary as a 
half-bushel measure or toll-dish. In my examinations 
of some of our best flouring mills, I have found this in- 
strument wanting, and was much surprised when many 
good practical millers have told me they never used one. 



94 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

The proof staff requires but to be seen and used once, 
to be the miller's favourite. They are made all sizes, to 
suit all descriptions of millstones, the general price 
being $25. 

In those mills that have the prooff staff in use, the 
offals are from two pounds to five pounds lighter per 
bushel than mills that have not. 



ON THE AMOUNT OF HELP NECESSARY TO BE EM- 

^ PLOYED IN A MILL OF FOUR RUN OF STONES, 

WITH THE DUTY OF EACH RESPECTIVELY. 

It requiring mechanical skill and art to conduct a 
flouring mill as it should be, we here give the proper 
management for conducting the same with propriety. 
It should have a head miller, who should act as super- 
intendent of the establishment and all pertaining there- 
to; also, a second and third miller, whose duty it is to 
perform all the duties assigned them by the head miller, 
or superintendent. The second miller should be capable 
of taking charge of the affairs of the mill in the absence 
of the head miller. When the mill runs steady, a run 
of stone should be dressed every day. The second mil- 
ler, and third, if capable, should perform that duty, 
which should be done by three or four o'clock each day. 
In the morning, as soon as the head miller returns to 
the mill, which should be after breakfast, he should 
first examine how each stone is grinding, and then the 



AND MILL^VRIGHT's ASSISTANT. 95 

oflfal, by which means he is able to ascertain how the 
grinding was performed since he left the mill in the 
evening, when his watch was off at eleven o'clock. If 
he detects any alteration, he should inquire into its 
cause, and give the necessary instruction how it might 
have been avoided. By so doing, he performs his duty 
as an instructor, and saves any further occasion for ne- 
glect; or otherwise, then he should continue in charge 
of the grinding and other business, such as may come 
to his knowledge during the day, allowing the other 
miller to perform the stone-dressing, sweeping, &c. 
When the stones are dressed and put down, one of the 
hands there employed should take the oil-can and sup- 
ply every journal in the mill with a fresh supply, which 
will last all night ; then, early in the morning, it should 
be renewed before taking up the stone, which will last 
ill day. Under management of this description, all 
things will move with a degree of order, so necessary to 
;he conducting of the business as it should be. Mills 
;hat do a large retail business, should have a person for 
;hat purpose, who is also competent to take in wheat. 
Che flour should be packed by a careful person, ex- 
)ressly for that employment alone. The night should 
)e divided into three equal parts, of four hours each — 
he head miller's watch first, &c. 



96 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 



HYDRAULICS AS PERTAINING TO THE PRACTICAL 
MILLWRIGHT. 

A knowledge of the natural laws which operate on 
fluids, particularly water, is a matter of importance to 
the millwright, which he should be well versed in. 
Learned theory is not of much use in this particular, 
as observation and practical experience go further to the 
attainment of making the practical millwright more per- 
fect than years of learned superficial theories can or do 
ever effect. For the truth of this assertion, let us ex- 
amine some of the improvements made in the application 
of water for driving mills within the last thirty years. 
Thirty years ago the undershot wheel was the principal 
wheel used for low heads, by which only, according to 
learned authors, one-half of the effective power was at- 
tained, it being by impulse or percussion. This we will 
admit; but where the undershot wheel was used for 
driving millstones, in the days of such wheels, we will 
not admit that even one-half of the effective power of 
the water was obtained, as demonstrated by recent im- 
provements. We are told also, that the specific gravity 
of water as applied to the overshot wheel for driving 
millstones, is the best possible mode of application, as 
double the power or effect is obtained on the overshot 
by specific gravity, that is attainable by the application 
on tfce undershot by impulse or percussion only. This 
we shall admit, as our own experience, as well as that 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 97 

of others better versed in science and practice, have fully 
demonstrated. 

But the inventions and improvements of the last few 
years have brought new light in the application of water 
for driving mills, which was not known or thought of 
thirty years ago. And may I ask to whom are we in- 
debted for this valuable light ? To the man of scientific 
knowledge, or the practical mechanic ? We say to the 
latter, as those names enrolled on the list of inventions 
in the United States Patent Office will attest. Learned 
theoretical investigations have never accomplished much 
for our advantage in the improvements of the mechanic 
arts of our country ; for practical science is that science 
which is based on truth only for light alone. We have 
been taught that in uniting what has been applied as 
separate powers in years gone by, specific gravity, per- 
cussion by impulse, and reaction, which is nearly equal 
with either of the other powers, as to affect it, being the 
after efiect of all the others, that water, as a fluid, can 
create, and so beautifully demonstrated for the purpose 
of propelling mills by the inventors whose names are 
attached to the list of those who have accomplished 
great benefits to all those who are daily using their in- 
ventions, by propelling their mills in various parts of 
our extensive country. We shall here notice the names 
of the two inventions in water-wheels which may be 
considered as first-class wheels : 

First, is the Lansing Spiral Percussion and Central 
Discharge Wheel, constructed with two sets of buckets, 
and called in this work the Combination Wheel. 

9 



98 

Second, is S. B. Howd's Direct Action. This wheel 
operates well on low heads, and in that situation is a 
first-class wheel. 

Now, as regards the subject of the combination of 
gravity, percussion, and reaction, applied as they are to 
form one great power by having a water-wheel properly 
constructed to receive this combination and in applying 
it to the propelling of mills, I do aver it to be as pow- 
erful as the overshot in the most advantageous position 
for business, and more so in a great many locations 
where flouring mills are the purpose used for. This 
opinion may appear paradoxical to the mere theorist — 
those only theoretically acquainted with the power or 
action of water as a fluid; but to the millwright,- whose 
experience leads him to look and examine into that way 
of application which produces the best results, he will 
find that our calculations are right when we assert that 
the combinations of power obtained by water being ap- 
plied on the principle of uniting those essentials which 
form this combination of gravity, percussion, or impulse, 
with the powerful auxiliary of reaction which could not 
be attached to either the overshot or undershot wheels, 
the auxiliary power of the reaction of water is asserted 
by Oliver Evans to be equal to the action. — (Mill- 
wright's Guide, Art. 45, Law 11.) — This we believe to 
be true. 

That action and reaction are two difi'e rent qualities of 
power in the application of water all must admit, for 
the active verb which expresses action is only applied to 
that mode of action known to the operator as specific 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 99 

gravity, and action by impulse or percussion, which was 
the only power applied to driving mills by Oliver Evans 
and Elicott. These were practical millwrights, and au- 
thors of a good practical work for the age in which it was 
written, being some forty years or more ago since the fii-st 
edition made its appearance, for instructing those of our 
trade. Many of us should be grateful for the benefits 
received by the compiling of the only work we have had 
as a miller and a millwright's guide, and we fully concur 
in the remarks of Thomas P. Jones, editor of the last edi- 
tion of the Millwright's Gruide, in hoping that in the his- 
tory of American inventors, posterity may accord Evans 
that place which he justly merited. But the change 
which time has effected in the improvements of mills 
and all other machinery, renders Mr. Evans's work 
comparatively useless, as far as the mechanical construc- 
tion of the present age relates to mill-building. But 
we propose to illustrate our remarks on the application 
of water when used by those combined powers. 



POWERS OF GRAVITY, PERCUSSION, OR IMPULSE, 
WITH THE REACTION ATTACHMENT. 

That a water-wheel, made and constructed to receive 
the water with this combination for driving millstones 
or saw-mills, is more effective than the overshot, we 
shall here show to the satisfaction of the most fastidi- 



100 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

ous or skeptical theorist^ according to Oliver Evans' 
theory. He asserts^ Art. 42, Young Millwright and 
Miller's Ouide : 

That one-third of the power of water, acting on a 
wheel, either under or overshot, is, he says, necessarily 
lost to obtain a velocity or overcome the inertia of mat- 
ter; and that this will hold true with all machinery that 
requires velocity as well as power. Every millwright's 
own experience ought to teach him that, if it was pos- 
sible to gear the overshot water-wheel into the stone 
pinion, then this one-third of lost power, that Oliver 
Evans speaks of, would be advantageously saved. This 
could not be done ; for, without double gearing, the ne- 
cessary motion could not be obtained on the millstone. 
Then, let me ask, how is it with our combination wheels ? 
Reason and practical experience show us quite the re- 
verse; for, to drive a run of stones of 4 J feet diameter, 
our water-wheel does not require to be over four feet in 
diameter, under a head of water of 12 feet head and f^ill, 
giving the stone a motion of 168 revolutions per minute, 
or as many more as is required, by altering the size of 
the wheel. This I call working on the right end of the 
lever, where the stone pinion is a few cogs larger than 
the spur-wheel. Oliver Evans' Young Millwright and 
Miller's Guide, page 81, second note on the page, gives 
more evidence on this particular. He says : A fluid 
reacts back against the penstock with the same force 
that it issues against the obstacle it strikes, founded on 
the laws of striking fluids. This fully corroborates our 
previous statement, when we said the effective power of 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 101 

water by reaction was equal to its effective power by 
gravity and percussion. This very day that I am writing 
this article, my own experience fully convinced me of this 
fact. I went to my usual avocation in attending the 
business of my mill. I have one of Howd's Patent 
Direct Action Water-Wheels ; my head and fall is usu- 
ally about five feet. This day, November 26, 1848, I 
had high water setting back on my wheel 36 inches, 
(3 feet.) I drew what we millers call a full gate, with- 
out any perceptible motion of the mill. The thought 
struck me, that by taking hold of the spur-wheel, I 
could assist the wheel to start, as the impulse from the 
head was not sufficient to create the slightest motion, 
the buckets of the wheel being immersed in back water. 
I succeeded in turning the wheel a few feet, which, by 
so doing, allowed the wheel to clear itself sufficiently, 
and from the combination of percussion or impulse from ^ 
the head and reaction from the bottom, which was in- 
stantaneous from the time the wheel first moved, I 
ground as much with but three feet of water from the 
surface of the back water, this day, as I have generally 
done without any back water, or any perceivable incon- 
venience from it, the only difference being the use of 
more water to do the same amount of work. The ad- 
vantages of these combination wheels to the miller, as 
regards the durability and large amount of capital saved 
by tbe difference in the cost of building mills where they 
are used and building with overshot wheels, are very 
great. We here give some idea of the difference, as 
follows : — For a mill of four run of stones, requiring five 



102 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

combination wheels, one for each run of stones, and one 
machinery in operation. The five, $800 it would require 
to overshot wheels at the lowest estimate of the naked 
wheels, $800 each, with two large cones, 2 pits, 2 crowns, 
4 pinions, at $800, not including millwright's wages for 
putting the same in operation, which supposing the dif- 
ference to be about one-half, as we allow eight hundred 
dollars to furnish the wheels and materials for starting, 
to the stone, with the combination wheels. Eight hun- 
dred dollars each for the construction of the overshot is 
low. I have myself been engaged in the construction 
of mills, where the water-wheels, two in number, over- 
shot, averaged one thousand dollars each. Now, to 
construct the mills as far as the stones — I speak only 
of the machinery this far — supposing a saving of one- 
half to the stop of the husk. The next point of inter- 
est, we consider, is the difi"erence in durability. The 
combination wheels, being made of iron, will last as long 
as any other part of the mill ; the overshot wheels, with 
a great deal of care, may last from nine to twelve years 
without renewing; and in the cold climates, such as 
New York and the Canadas, they require a great deal 
of protection from the frost, which, if allowed to collect 
in ice, soon weakens the joints of the wheels, and ren- 
ders them useless. The manner in which the combina- 
tion wheel is placed protects it, in any climate, from 
frost. Then, for convenience, it is preferable, as, when 
the miller wants to take up his stone, all he has to do 
is to shut the gate and take up the stone, without the 
burthensome task of raising and shifting pinions, as is 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 103 

the case in breast undershot or overshot wheels. The 
term combination, in this article, is our own language, 
and we apply it to water acting in the following manner : 
By percussion or impulse, united with reaction power, 
and Lansing's invention. 



REMARKS TO THE MILLWRIGHT ON THE NECESSITY 
OF ECONOMY IN PLANNING AND ARRANGING THE 
MACHINERY OF FLOURING AND GRIST MILLS. 

I HOPE millwrights who may chance to look over the 
pages of this work, will fully appreciate our remarks on 
this subject; sufficiently, at least, to justify us in saying 
that we have had experience enough to fill a volume 
alone on this subject, having devoted the best part of 
our lifetime to the milling and millwright business, and 
that in mills constructed by different mechanics, where we 
have had the opportunity of contrasting the amount of 
genius and skill displayed by each, and also the objection- 
able blunders that have been committed by millwrights 
claiming a name for close workmanship and acute me- 
chanical skill as draftsmen. The first essential we shall 
notice, as requisite to a good mill of any kind, is power; 
the next is proportional strength in all its parts ; the next 
being an economical arrangement of all its parts. This 
is the entire of what constitutes the name of a good 
millwright. We shall now point out what we call the 
objectionable blunders of some of our trade. The first we 



104 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

sliall notice is an inordinate love for display in erecting 
buildings of too costly a finish, as expensive and showy 
cornices, a large amount of the inside work cabinet and 
panel, made such as the useless panel-work exhibited 
in some of our mills on the custom and flouring bolting 
chests, doors, &c. &c. Again : the shafts turned and 
polished, and, worst of all, a display of complicated ma- 
chinery, where about one wheel would answer when 
three are used. This is wrong, and should not be the 
case, as you are foolishly wasting a large amount of 
capital, that might be much better invested in the pur- 
chase of wheat. 

And not the least important matter to which we 
shall now call your attention more particularly, is the 
husk. 

A great many millwrights connect the husk with the 
main building. This is wrong. The husk should be a 
separate frame for two considerations, namely: ^B'irst, 
it is the main support of most all the machinery ; se- 
cond, when separate the stones work better, as they are 
not so likely to get out of level as where the husk is 
connected with the main building. Too many mill- 
wrights run into this error by framing the husk and 
building together, and the consequence is, when the mill 
is loaded with grain, the building settles,— as right over 
the husk the most weight is generally placed, and the 
stone keeps getting out of place daily, as well as all the 
other machinery attached thereto, which soon decreases 
the power of the mill, and gives the millwright who 
constructed the mill a name of slighting his work, when 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 105 

the whole cause originated in this one particular, — of 
framing the husk to the main building. 

Another objection^ which is quite discernible in too 
many good merchant-mills of our acquaintance, is an 
unnecessary tremour, which gives the machinery a vi- 
brating motion. This is easily discerned by the practi- 
cal machinist, as soon as his ear comes in contact with 
that ringing sound which all machinery has that is 
working irregular, as some of the wheels work deeper 
than their relative pitch circles, and others not deep 
enough for the pitch circle. This may all be avoided 
by not making your husk too long posted. As a general 
thing, where your husk-posts are over 12 feet in length, 
there is a tremour, which has a tendency to keep the 
machinery continually working out of its centre. 



ON BEDDING THE STONE. 

Another difficulty exists with many millwrights, in 
regard to bedding the stones, and that is in laying them 
down in what I call a temporary manner, by laying 
boards or pieces under them, which keep shrinking and 
swelling, and making it difficult to keep the bed-stones 
level, with an attendant evil to the bush, as it also gets 
out of place by the same fault. The proper mode of 
bedding the stone is, to joint their beds in the husk- 
timbers to a perfect level, then gauge the back of your 



106 

stone to a size, and joint the same to a true face, having 
it a little hollow next the eye, and when placed will be 
perfectly level ; then case around with two-inch plank, 
and there will be no trouble in your mill with the stones 
getting out of level, and the bush will not be half the 
trouble as in the old way of bedding stones. A proper 
attention to our observations, — in remedying the evils 
first pointed out, in arranging the machinery of mills 
to the best possible advantage, — is what makes a good 
practical millwright ; and, also, it is the sum total of 
the trade. Good calculation and close work is as neces- 
sary to the millwright as the handling of the tools which 
he daily uses. He must not think, in drafting mills, 
how much machinery he can place in the building, 
which only adds more capital that might be better en- 
gaged, as we have previously shown; but how little 
machinery it will possibly take to complete the mill in 
a skilful manner, should be the main object in view. 
And when we think of the many mills which have been 
built in various States of this Union, without any regard 
to those principles as just laid down, where thousands 
of dollars have been lavished by head millwrights, to 
the injury of their employers, we think ourselves fully 
justified in extending this caution to those of our trade 
who may need it. 

We have attached a number of jobs of difi'erent sized 
mills to this work, for the use of those millwrights who, 
in the language of friend Fowler, have got constructive- 
ness sufficiently large, but whose organ of order is be- 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 107 

low mediocritj. By tbese he may be able to obtain all 
the necessary information from our collection of jobs, 
which have been drafted especially for this work by the' 
author and millwrights of more acknowledged ability, 
to suit all locations for steam and water-mills whose 
head and fall is from 3 to 30 feet, with a full calcula- 
tion of the amount of water necessary to drive from one 
to ten run of stones, on different heads, as shown in our 
jobs. All our plans for conducting mills of all descrip- 
tions, are drafted with due regard for that phrenological 
organ, called order, in the arrangement of the machinery 
on the most approved modern style of mill-building, 
both flouring, grist, and saw-mills. We have also an- 
nexed a catalogue of the different patterns of machinery, 
from some of the best foundries in the United States,' 
as to perfect proportions in the different sizes and as- 
sortments of castings, both for quality and price, not to 
be undersold by any other establishments in the Union. 
It is for the benefit of the millwright, as it serves as a 
guide to direct him in all his plans,— as the patterns 
are all numbered in different sizes, and will serve the 
purpose of aiding the millwright in selecting the differ- 
ent articles of machinery suitable for the different 
kinds of mills, and in proportioning his own work ac- 
cordingly. 



108 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 



TO FIND THE NUMBER OF REVOLUTIONS OF THE 
WATER-WHEEL PER MINUTE. 

We annex a table of rules for finding the revolutions 
of any sized water-wheel, which the millwright will find 
oftentimes useful in his practice, namely : 

First, find the circumference of the wheel by multi 
ing the diameter by 22, and divide by 7, and the quo 
tient is the correct answer. 



TO FIND THE VELOCITY OF THE STONE PER 
MINUTE. 

To find the velocity or number of revolutions of 
4 J foot stone per minute, multiply the diameter i 
inches, which is 54, by 22, and divide by 7, which give? 
a fraction less than 170 inches, the circumference. Af 
the lowest calculation we give stones now, being 206c 
feet, or 24,756 inches, the skirt moves per minute 
which would give the stone 146 revolutions per minute 
This motion is much too slow for this size stone ; w( 
only insert it for the use of those who like slow motioi 
for stones. 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 109 



A RULE TO FIND THE DIAMETER OF ALL PITCH 
CIRCLES. 

The proper method is to multiply tlie number of cogs 
in the wheel by the pitch, as 

24 cogs and 2 inches pitch, 
2 pitch, 

gives 48, which is the circumference; 

multiplied by 1, and divided by 22, 

thus, 22) 336 (IS^^ diameter in inches. 

22 

116 
110 



6 

To reduce to feet, divide by 12) IS^^- 

1.3 J, which gives one 
foot three inches and a quarter. 



TO FIND HOW MANY REVOLUTIONS THE STONE 
MAKES FOR ONE OF THE WATER-WHEELS. 

Divide 146 revolutions of the stone by the number 
of revolutions of the water-wheel, and the quotient is the 
answer. 



10 



110 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 



ON MACHINERY. 



A CORRECT knowledge of those fundamental princi- 
ples of the power and use of machinery should be the 
chief study of both the miller and the millwright, but 
more particularly the latter. The millwright's trade is 
different now from what it was thirty years ago. Then the 
millwright had all his own gearing to make, and could 
not be expected to build so complete and well-arranged - 
mills as he can now, where he has every thing furnished 
in the shape of machinery from the large machinery 
establishments with which our country abounds, all of 
the best description, fitted and finished in a superior 
style of mechanical contrivance, from the water-wheel 
to the smallest wheel in use about the mill, from which 
the millwright may select the requisite gearing to suit 
any water power capable of propelling mills of any de- 
scription. For full particulars, look at the index of this 
work, for mill-gearing and catalogues of the different 
patterns of machinery furnished. 



A RULE FOR CONSTRUCTINa THE CONVEYOR. 

The conveyor is that useful piece of machinery which 
forms an artificial screw for conveying either wheat, flour, 
or any other stuff, from one part of the mill to any de- 
sired part. It is simple in its construction, the shaft 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. Ill 

being from 4 to 6 inches in diameter. For a shaft of 4 
inches diameter, the flights should be about IJ inches 
wide, with two inches in length for the blade, and a 
stem of one inch, to fill a hole in the shaft from seven- 
eighths of an inch to one inch in diameter. This size 
answers for flour and meal best, it requiring a more 
substantial one for the moving of grain. To a shaft of 
six inches diameter, the flight should be two inches 
wide on the blade. To lay out the shaft to receive 
them, dress it eight-square, put in the journals, and 
band them substantially ; then lay out with the square 
for your flights in the following manner : — Scribe for 
the first one on the end of the shaft ; then measure with 
your dividers one- fourth of an inch from your first, and 
scribe your line on the next square of the shaft, which 
continue to do till you get to the other end ; then go 
back and begin with the first point of your first flight to 
the first point of the scribe you made, for the second 
flight is called the pitch line, to set the flights at the 
proper angle. 



ON THE CONSTRUCTION OP MILL-DAMS. 

Mill-dams are generally a source of great expense, 
in keeping them in repair, when constructed out of poor 
materials. There are as many opinions on the proper 
way to build them as there are mill-dams in use. Some 
prefer stone, some clay, and others brush, logs, and 
every conceivable material of such nature. But, in 



112 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

building mill-dams, the first thing to be looked at is the 
location where the dam is to set, of what kind of a 
foundation it is to set on, whether a soft bottom or 
hard; in other words, claj or stone foundation by 
nature. If stone, the expense is not half as great as 
clay or other soil. 

But in the Western States, stone are not sufficiently 
plenty to construct dams of, so that on foundations of 
soft bottoms the expense is greater to build dams than 
many wish to go to^ 

In the first place, a good foundation is necessary to 
protect the dam from breaks, accidents by the burrowing 
of musk-rats, which occasion the destruction of so many 
mill-dams. 

As to the description of dams which we should re- 
commend where stone are not handy, would be a frame 
dam, they being more permanent and capable of resist- 
ing the attacks of musk-rats and high water. We shall 
here give a plan for building such a dam as we should 
recommend for all mill sites of soft foundations. The 
bottom where you are going to erect the dam, should be 
levelled quite level, then mud sills should be sunk level 
with the surface, crossways of the stream, about 10 or 
12 feet apart, and of a width of 35 or 40 feet from bank 
to bank. The two outside sills should be piled with 2 
inch plank driven down to a depth of 4 or 5 feet, with 
the joints as close as possible, and they would be the 
better of being lined with some light stufi" f of an inch 
thick. Posts of 12 inches square should be framed into 
the first row of outside sills, on both sides, all the way 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 113 

across the danij from bank to bank, and a distance of 
six feet apart. They should each be locked with braces 
extending two-thirds of the length of the posts where 
they should be joined together with a lock instead of a 
mortice and tenon, with an iron bolt of an inch in di- 
ameter going through both and fastened with a nut. 
I prefer a lock joint to mortice and tenon for the follow- 
ing reason: The tenon soon becomes rotten, and the 
brace becomes useless in a few years. This brace should 
be set at an angle of about 55 or 60 degrees, with the 
other end morticed into a sill with a two inch mortice ; 
being covered with the dirt, it will not decay, as the air is 
excluded. The braces require to be about 8 by 6 inches 
and 15 feet long. The posts should be capped from one 
to the other, plate fashion ; then the posts should receive 
lining of 2 inch plank on the inside next the dirt of both 
sides, pinned fast to the posts. 

If the stream afford a great deal of water, I should 
recommend the dam to be built in two sections, as above 
described, which should be divided by a waste way for 
the surplus water, which should be located in the centre 
of the dam and of about sixty feet wide. For its con- 
struction, I should recommend the depth to be from the 
bottom of the dam in the following manner : Let each 
section of the dam form a butment next the waste way, 
by placing sills four feet apart the length of the waste 
way; in each of ^ these sills posts should be framed, with 
a brace for the sides. These rows of posts standing 
right across the dam, will form two sectional hutments 
of the dam, and the middle one may be constructed by 

10* 



114 

being braced lengthwise of the stream with short braces 
to avoid being in the way of drift wood passing down 
stream, it being necessary for string pieces for a bridge. 
Then those sills should be covered with an apron of two 
inch plank, joined perfectly straight, extending at least 
40 feet below the dam, to carry off the water at such a 
distance to prevent an undermining of the dam, by hav- 
ing the foundation washed away, which the water will 
certainly do if allowed to fall on the soil too near the 
dam. The planks which are used for the purpose of 
lining the posts which form the hutments of each section 
of the dam and the ends of the waste way, should be jointed, 
tongued, and grooved, to prevent the slightest leakage. 

Every thing of importance being completed, the dirt 
should be filled in with teams, as the more it is tramped 
the better. Clay or coarse gravel is the best soil to use. 
Proper sized gates may be put in on the upper side of 
the waste way, about 3 or 4 feet wide, to a level with 
low water mark, not to be raised except in times of very 
high water, as the proper height of the mill-pond should 
be regulated by boards placed over the gates for the de- 
sired head, as the water should be allowed to pass at all 
times freely over them. 

This is the description of a frame dam which the 
author built. It gives the greatest satisfaction, it being 
proof against the attacks of musk-rats, which prove such 
an annoyance to the miller. Located in a country 
where those animals abound in great numbers, my dam 
has been built about seven years, and has not given way 
once in that time. 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 115 

ON THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SMUT MACHINES IN 
USE, WITH RULES FOR MAKING THE SAME. 

The smut machine is used for separating smut and 
all other impurities from the wheat, and is a necessary 
machine for all mills making good flour. But the kind 
of smut machine which should be used for that purpose, 
is difficult to find among the hosts of recent inventions, 
as every late invention seems to be got up more with the 
view of a shaving machine than for the purpose of sepa- 
rating smut from wheat, for which they are disposed to 
the miller. 

The most of those inventions that I have seen in use, 
are constructed of cast iron, which soon wear smooth, 
and are then rendered useless, for the want of a suffi- 
ciently rough surface to scrape off the smut from the 
grain. 

Another great difficulty exists with those kind of smut 
machines. They all require too great a velocity, which 
produces more friction than there ought to be produced, 
where there is so much light combustible material, as 
chaff, &c., eight hundred revolutions per minute being 
the motion they require. 

I have constructed a smut machine which is very 
simple, and safe from fire occasioned by friction, as the 
motion does not require over 500 revolutions per minute 
for the smallest size, and 400 for the largest size. It is 
nothing more than an improvement on the old cone ma- 
chine, the only difference being, that in my machine the 



WQ THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

cylinder differs by its being made so as to produce a 
strong current of air, wliicli acts on the wheat as it passes 
through the machine, and forces it through the con- 
cave, which is made of Russian sheet iron, perforated 
with an oblong punch. We here give the dimensions 
of a machine that will clean about 30 or 40 bushels per 

hour. 

The bottom should be 30 inches in diameter, and the 
top 18 inches in diameter, and 36 inches deep, which 
gives the proper sized concave. The cylinder should be 
constructed on an iron shaft, which should be turned 
at both ends, one end to a proper point, which should be 
pointed with a good cast-steel point, fitted to run per- 
pendicularly. The shaft should be two inches square. 
The cylinder should be solid, in the following proper- 
tions : The bottom 20 inches in diameter, and the top 
12 inches; then fit on 15 beeters, or wings, made out 
of heavy band iron, wide enough to fill up the remainder 
of the concave, giving each wing about one-half inch 
from the concave, which would leave each wing 4| 
inches at the bottom, and 2| inches at the top. In put- 
ting on the wings, one edge should be turned so as to 
form a right angle with the wings, and about an inch 
wide, with holes sufficient to screw them on to the cy- 
linder with the flanges screwed on the opposite way from 
which the cylinder runs. The band pully should be on 
the top of the machine. When the machine is ready 
to set up, it should bolted down on a square frame, made 
to receive it, two feet from the floor, and this frame 
should be enclosed with No. 12 wire, so as to allow the 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 117 

air to the machine. I prefer having the top and bottom 
segments made of cast iron instead of wood, with 3 
sockets cast iron, in each half of the top and bottom 
segments. Th« sockets should be about 2 inches square, 
to receive the ribs that form the concave that the sheet 
iron is screwed to, which would be six in number. 
Cast iron will last much longer than wood, and is made 
in one-half the time. After the patterns are made for 
the castings, the cost of one of these smut machines is 
not over fifty dollars, and can be* made by any mill- 
wright. They are used in some of the best merchant 
flouring mills in the States of New York and Ohio. 
The wheat ought to pass through a blower before it ar- 
rives in the garner over the stone. If the wheat passes 
from the smut mill through the spout into the garner, 
then it will do to have a small blower directly under the 
smut mill, but if taken from the machine by elevators, 
the blower ought to be erected right over the garner 
that feeds the stone, as dust is always settling about the 
elevators. 

This smut machine is the cheapest for all kinds of 
mills, from the smallest grist to the largest flouring mill, 
bfeing free from all unnecessary friction, and when 
smooth is easily sharpened by punching over, until 
the sheet iron is worn out, which will last three or four 
years, and can be replaced in a short time when worn 
out. From an eighth to a sixteenth is wide enough to 
punch the sheet iron for the concave. 



118 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 



KEMAEKS ON A LATE INVENTION, OF INTRODUCING 
AIU BETWEEN MILLSTONES, WHEN GRINDING. 

This invention was patented a few years ago, by a 
miller, in the State of Ohio; and from the ingenuity 
displayed in the contrivance, promised a flattering hope 
of its utility as an assistant means in having the meal 
cooled in the operation of grinding; but this artificial 
means of using air between the millstones must prove 
a failure, and the reason is, it comes in contact with two 
essential principles of natural philosophy,— the first be- 
ing that of friction, and the second, the natural and only 
element of friction, heat. The inventor should have 
first examined the natural laws by which friction is pro. 
duced, and then he could have clearly seen the impossi 
bility of suppressing the heat of millstones while per 
forming the operation of grinding; as every intelligenl 
miller must know, that pressing grain between two mill 
stones creates the very agent that performs the grinding 
being friction, and as heat is the element of friction, th( 
amount of friction produced by a millstone when grind 
ing, is as the square root of the amount of pressure 
used ; consequently, the amount of air necessary to re 
pel the heat produced by the friction of grinding, wouh 
have to be great enough to blow the stone off the cock 
head. Our remarks on this subject are based on natura 
philosophy, together with an examination of the inven 
tion in operation. The mode of using this artificial ai 



AND MILLY\^RIGHt's ASSISTANT. 119 

between millstones, as applied by the patentee, is ex- 
tremely simple, a good feature in this principle, as the 
expense of the contrivance is small. A large bellows 
is placed in the cog-pit, conducting a given quantity of 
air into four attacjied pipes which enter the millstones 
through the corners of the bush, the pipes being sunk 
as deep as is necessary in the four leading furrows near- 
est the corner follower of the bush in the head stone, 
and open at the ends of the pipes to admit the passage 
bf the air. This is only an outline of the principle, 
bemg sufficient for our purpose, to convey a proper idea 
of the application and use of the invention, for the use 
of all those millers who have not examined the inven- 
tion personally. The author refrains from passing any 
iecided opinion on this invention, out of motives of 
lelicaey to the patentee, as well as other proprietors; 
)ut we consider that this invention would be more useful 
IS a means of cooling the flour or meal, by having it 
ipplied in the cooler instead of the stone. We think 
hat one-fiftieth part of the air applied in the cooler, or 
lopper, would efi-ect the cooling of the meal more than 
t is possible for it to be done as applied through the 
tones; and we see no reason to prevent its being use- 
iil in moist sultry weather, when applied in the cooler, 
y making the temperature of air below that of the 
wrrounding air outside, and the meal must bolt cleaner, 
nd in some cases better, than without this artificial 
lode of conducting the air to the cooler. 



120 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

A DESCRIPTION OF THE AUTHOR'S GRAIN-DRYER, 
PATENTED 1850. 

This macliiiie is constructed in the following simple 
manner : — It consists of two or more stationary cylin- 
ders, one above the other ; and by the use of double 
transverse rakes, the grain is passed from the top cylin- 
der to the bottom, and from that to the millstone, from 
which, after being ground, it passes into a bolt made 
expressly of fine brass wire. This machine is heated 
by an ordinary common furnace, on which the machine 
is built. The machine is constructed of iron entirely, 
and in the most durable manner. 

Having examined various machines for the same pur 
pose, the author feels assured that his machine will ex 
tract the oil and moisture from Indian corn better than 
any other contrivance for a similar purpose, for the fol 
lowing reasons, namely : That, owing to its peculiai 
construction, a great heat can be brought to act on th( 
grain in the last stage of drying, or, in other words 
the difi'erent degrees of heat which the grain encounters 
on this principle of stationary cylinders, is more bene- 
ficial than if the degrees of heat on each cylinder was 
equal, as the heat on the bottom cylinder is always th( 
greatest, and which acts on the grain last. This is 
principle which my machine commands over all others 
Next, the combination of stationary cylinders being sucl 
as to allow the heat to act on each other, as the numbei 
of cylinders above the bottom are all punched so as t( 




HUGHES S GRAIN DRYER. 

Plate 4.- p. 120. 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 121 

admit the heat to operate on each in succession ; also, 
it being constructed out of material which renders it 
fire-proof. 

It is entirely an original invention of the author, per- 
fectly simple in its construction, and will make a decided 
improvement in that great staple production of the soil 
of most of the States of this Union : as, from the na- 
ture of Indian corn, without being properly dried, it 
becomes an article of dangerous investment in com- 
mercial trade, for either the miller or merchant. In 
warm weather it will heat and sour before it reaches 
market, which prohibits the merchant from operating 
largely in the purchase of this grain until late in the 
coming season ; consequently, our farmers receive no 
return from this crop until so late a period in the fol- 
lowing season, that the country generally, does not real- 
ize one-half the benefit from this extensive crop. A 
knowledge of the importance it would be to those States 
that raise large surplus quantities of this grain, so much 
wanted in other countries, induced the author to con- 
struct some means for accomplishing what he conceives 
to be a great end or improvement in this particular, 
which will dry from one hundred to one thousand bushels 
of corn per day, with one machine. Every intelligent 
farmer will acknowledge the benefit derived from my 
invention, which will enable him to receive the full 
value for his corn crop, by making it an article of im- 
mediate demand, either by the merchant or miller, who 
buys it for export. The price of Indian corn, in all our 
western markets, is always, in the fall and winter, lower 
11 



122 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

than western farmers can aiFord to raise it for ; and al- 
ways will be, until it can be properly manufactured al 
home, and sent to our commercial cities for export in a 
situation that will warrant capital being employed in the 
purchase of it. For such is our machine intended. 

According to chemical analysis, corn contains a pro- 
portion of moisture double that of any other of the ce- 
real grains, and retains it during its natural existence. 
As oil is a large portion of its component parts, it pre- 
vents the moisture from evaporating, except by artificial 
means. 

My invention may also be profitably used in drying 
wheat, as well as corn, and save a large amount of capi' 
tal frequently lost by those who deal largely in this kind 
of produce. Wheat should unquestionably be dried be- 
fore it is ground, if the flour is wanted to keep any or- 
dinary length of time, particularly for export. It will 
also yi^ld much more flour per bushel, and require 
about one-half the machinery to manufacture it that i\ 
otherwise does where it is not dried. The quality of the 
flour is improved at least ten per cent., as, by drying 
the wheat, all impurities of a vegetable nature are en^ 
tirely consumed ; and by extracting its natural moist 
ure, the flour will consume, when baked, more watei 
than it would before the grain was dried, which makef 
the bread much more palatable, it being more spongj 
than bread made from flour of any climate ; and if pro 
per care is taken to dry the barrels over a charcoal fir( 
previous to packing, the flour, will remain sweet fo: 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 123 

years, and stand the salt water equally as well as a bar- 
rel of beef or pork. 

For further information on this subject, the reader is 
referred to an article in this work by Professor Burke, 
taken from his Eeport to the Commissioner of Patents 
of the United States, for 1848. 



RULES FOR THE PURCHASE OF WHEAT FOR MILLERS' 
USE. 

This is a subject of much importance to both the 
miller and farmer, as well as all others dealing in wheat 
— the standard weight of which is held at 60 pounds per 
measured bushel of 32 quarts. But the deleterious ef- 
fects to which this crop is so often subject, cause fre- 
quent disappointment to both miller and farmer, by 
wheat crops frequently falling short, (per measured 
bushel, of this referred-to standard weight,) and ren- 
ders necessary some plan for the benefit and protection 
of both parties. 

In a great many of our milling establishments a rule 
of dockage^ as it is termed, prevails, in the following pro- 
portion : For every pound that the measured bushel falls 
short of 60, one pound is added to make up this shrink- 
age, as in the case of wheat weighing but 56 pounds per 
measured bushel, 64 is required, and in like proportion 
as the case may be. Now this plan of dockage I should 
not at all recommend, from the fact that it raises a pre- 
judice, in the minds of farmers generally, against the 



124 

mill, wherever this plan prevails. As the difference in 
judgment of the buyer and seller of this article conflicts 
so frequently, the deduction, according to the foregoing 
rules, does not at all suit the views of farmers generally. 

To obviate this difficulty, I should recommend the 
miller to deal in the article of wheat as the merchant 
does in the article of calicoes, broadcloths, or any other 
description of goods, whose relative value is fixed accord- 
ing to its quality. This I deem to be the true and general 
rule which should be adopted by all merchant millers. 
The only exception which should be taken to this plan 
is when the miller does custom flouring ; that is, where 
farmers have their wheat floured by the barrel on their 
own account; and in this case, only where the farmer has 
the miller restricted as to the number of bushels of wheat 
allowed for each barrel of flour. There are many sea- 
sons that wheat overruns its standard weight, and as 
frequently it falls short of it. When the grain is well 
filled, it is to the advantage of the farmer more than the 
miller, as good plump wheat, well cleaned, generally 
overruns some two or more pounds per bushel, mea- 
sured according to the species. 

The different species of wheat require also to be con- 
sidered in the profits of millers, as the yield of flour of 
each is as varied as the different samples. This is the 
result of simple experience, which millers are all more 
or less acquainted with. That sample of wheat which 
weighs heaviest does not always make the most flour. 
For, as a general thing, the sample of wheat called Me- 
diterranean, for actual weight, exceeds by some pounds 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 125 

any other sample. In this particular, now, most mil- 
lers know that this is not the description for merchant 
flour, from the fact that it is of a coarse, hard nature, 
difficult to grind, and always bolts so very free that the 
flour is quite specky, and partaking entirely of the fari- 
naceous substance more than any other of the kind, be- 
sides containing less starch than most other samples of 
wheat. But, as regards its nutritious qualities, it is 
inferior to none of the wheat species. It contains 
about 20 per cent, of gluten, which makes it a desirable 
sample for family flour and home use. But being so 
far below other samples in the quantity of starch, which 
tends to give the berry a dark appearance, renders it 
comparatively useless for transportation, the flour hav- 
ing a coarse, specky appearance, which tends very much 
to injure its sale. 

As regards the best quality of wheat for millers' use, 
I recommend the Michigan White Flint, it being supe- 
rior in richness, containing much less water and more 
gluten than other qualities grown in the Western States. 
There are of this species two distinct kinds — namely, 
the large White Flint and the Michigan Dwarf; the 
latter being of a more delicate and rich quality of wheat, 
and producing flour of the best quality. At the exhi- 
bition of agricultural specimens by the Michigan 
State Agricultural Society, in 1849, at the city of 
Detroit, these two last-mentioned samples of wheat took 
first and second premiums, in preference to all others 
exhibited — the author being the exhibitor of the Dwarf 
White Flint, and received the premium for the same. 



126 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

This seems to be particularly adapted to the luxuriant 
soil of Michigan ; and if it were possible to deliver it in 
the New York market in the same state of neatness that 
Oswego and Genesee flour is brought to that market, Mi- 
chigan flour would justly merit the preference. But the 
distance being so much greater, and reshipping so fre- 
quent, by which the barrels become racked and soiled 
to that extent, that the western miller has those diflS.cul- 
ties to contend with, that are entirely unknown to mil- 
lers in western New York. For it is a notorious fact, 
that the heaviest milling establishments in New York 
are almost exclusively supplied with western wheat, and 
principally of mixed qualities, from spring wheat upwards, 
and from which the Genesee flour is principally made. 
But its going to market in such a nice clean manner is 
the sole reason of its generally commanding a better 
price ; which fully corroborates the old proverb : A man 
is known and respected in proportion to the quality of 
the cloth in the coat that he wears ; and a maxim of 
philosophy extensively countenanced by all city flour 
inspectors, whose judgment is more frequently guided by 
the outward appearance of a barrel of flour, than by the 
contents and quality of the interior, which, for some years 
past, has operated very much to the disadvantage of all 
western millers who had not, until recently, a flour agent 
to receive and dispose of their flour for them, which 
was actually necessary in New York markets. By a 
wise legislative act, the office of public flour inspector is 
now abolished, which tends to place western fancy 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 127 

brands on a par with stately Grenesee^ which^ previous 
to this, was not the case. 

See article on the inspection of flour. 



THE PROPER METHOD FOR FITTING THE BALE AND 
DRIVER TO THE MILLSTONE. 

This operation of fitting the irons in millstones re- 
quires a great degree accuracy in the millwright. In 
the first part of the process, the gains should be laid 
from the exact centre of the stone, for both bale and 
driver. If the old-fashioned transverse driver is used, 
it is better to have boxes to drive against. After these 
gains are ready to receive their irons, the bale should 
be first inserted, and fastened to the centre. Before 
the bale is inserted to its place, great care should be 
taken that the gains which receive it are smooth at the 
bottom, and exactly of the same depth; for if the bale 
is not perfectly level at each end, the^stone cannot be 
made to drive true, and will always get out of balance 
as soon as it is set in motion, which causes a great deal 
of trouble to the miller to keep the spindle-neck tight. 
Then place the bale in the gains. The stone being 
level, fasten a small board in the eye of the stone — 
called the centre-board ; then find the exact centre of 
the stone on the board, bore a hole large enough to admit 
a plumb-line through, with a ball and fine point ; then 
move the ball until it agrees exactly with the plumb- 
points ; then it is supposed to be in the centre of the 



128 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

stone. Make it perfectly fast with iron wedges, tapered 
a little for the purpose ; then fasten the boxes to the 
driver by means of four wood wedges, allowing at least one 
inch at each end, and one inch on the reverse side from 
which it drives, for play room. Then insert the driver 
and boxes into the gains prepared to receive them. 
Place the spindle into the irons, as when running, and 
make a tram to go from the spindle-neck to the peri- 
phery of the stone, similar to the one used for tramming 
the spindle to the centre of the bed-stone, with a piece 
long enough to go through the sweep and extend per- 
pendicularly to the spindle point, where it should go 
through a small transverse cap, that plays on the spin- 
dle point, seven inches long, with a hole through it to 
receive the point of the spindle. 

This is what is called a tram for placing the driver in 
its proper position. To drive the stone by them, turn 
the sweeps, moving the driver by iron wedges driven be- 
tween the stone and boxes, until the quill touches alike 
all around the stone. The spindle should be held per- 
fectly plumb until completed. Take some dough or clay 
and plaster it well on the outside of the bale and driver, 
to prevent the bed from running out, as it is poured in 
around the irons. There is another kind of driver used, 
which drives by the bale, called a swallow-tail driver. 
This kind is the best, as it saves cutting away the stone 
from the eye, where it is so much wanted, and is 
trammed to drive just as the other kind, by chipping 
away the touching parts till it trams perfectly with the 
driver and the bale. It requires room for play, just as 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 129 

the other kind, and is mucli better as a driver, by its 
not taking up so much room. 



REMARKS ON PACKING FLOUR, WITH A PACKER'S 
TABLE FOR THE SAME. 

As one branch of the business connected with the 
flouring mill, the packing requires some attention to its 
department; in particular, cleanliness on the part of the 
packer cannot be too strictly recommended. The next 
point in connection, is the necessity of properly preparing 
the flour barrels, by setting all the hoops before nailing, 
and then using just enough of nails in each barrel, 
which should not be less than one dozen. Then, before 
the flour is put into the barrel, each mill should be fur- 
nished with a portable coal furnace, and each barrel 
should be well aired over this fire previous to its being 
packed. This will purify the barrel of all acids, and 
gaseous substances, which tend to sour the flour, by lactic 
acid fermentation, which is generated from substances in 
oak timber if not thoroughly dry. In marking the tare 
on the barrel, it should be done on the scribed end that 
is taken out. In weighing the barrels, some mills make 
a rule of deducting one pound for the shrinkage of the 
same, but in all cases the full amount of flour should be 
allowed, with one and one-fourth pound for waste. 
This will tend materially to the credit of the mill in es- 
tablishing a straight brand. Flour barrels packed in the 



130 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

Western States require to be somewhat heavier than those 
used nearer market, and well hooped, with the chime 
hoops one and a quarter inches wide, weighing from 
eighteen to twenty pounds. 

PACKER'S TABLE. 
Weight of bbls. Tub weight. When packed. 

15 lbs 211 lbs. 

16 lbs 212 lbs. 

17 lbs 213 lbs. 

18 lbs 214 lbs. 

19 lbs 215 lbs. 

20 lbs 216 lbs. 

21 lbs 217 lbs. 

22 lbs 218 lbs. 

23 lbs 219 lbs. 

24 lbs 220 lbs. 

25 lbs... 221 lbs. 



REMARKS ON BRANDING FLOUR IN BARRELS. 

This part, although frequently done carelessly, with- 
out sufficient attention to its neatness, requires the mil- 
ler's attention, to see that the quality of the flour is equal 
to the insignia it bears. This is an essential which 
every respectable mill should keep inviolate. All good 
mills of first class should have at least two brands, su- 
perfine extra, and superfine. First quality wheat, if 
manufactured properly, will bear the extra. Inferior 
wheat will not, and second grinding should never be 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 131 

branded higher than fine in any case. I also recom- 
mend two colours for the brands of each mill: Venetian 
red for second brand, and light blue for first brand, mixed 
with spirits of turpentine, put on with a soft brush, and 
branded on the opposite end from the one marked with 
the tare. 

The packer should have a similar table to this in front 
of his scales, with the weight of the tub included. 



MAtJKS'S PATENT BOLT. 

This principle of constructing bolts has been but 
lately introduced to the milling public, and called by 
the inventor, a hot bolt. The term hot we have omitted. 
We consider the improvement regulated entirely by a 
good principle of natural philosophy, as the bolt is placed 
in a cylinder, air-tight, which prevents any pressure of 
the surrounding atmosphere on the outside of the bolt- 
ing-cloth, and forms a draft from the inside of the 
bolt. As large quantities of air, brought from the stone 
and elevators into the bolt, give an outward pressure, 
by which the meshes of the cloth are always kept open ; 
consequently, a bolt constructed in this way will bolt 
nearly as fast again as the old plan of construction. 

But it can make no difi"erence as to the state in which 
the meal is in, whether hot or cold, if ground properly; 
and in all cases bolts faster and more freely where the 
meal is cool than otherwise, as it is known the finer the 



132 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

meal is ground, the more the natural element of moist- 
ure, which the grain contains, is extracted, which gives 
flour that savory feeling when ground too fine, that ope- 
rates like paste on the bolts. This invention does away 
with a great many useless wheels, and tends to improve 
the power thereby. But when adopted for merchant 
flour, I should prefer the conveyor, which conducts the 
flour, to be separate from the bolt, as used by the in- 
ventor. 

ON THE INSPECTION OF FLOUR. 

The duty of the flour inspector is one which requires 
a vast amount of experience in the difi'erent qualities of 
flour, to perform it properly ', and no inspector of flour 
should be allowed to hold that office, who is not a prac- 
tical miller ; and as public officers of inspection are fast 
going out of date, much to the credit of those States 
where this office, as a public one, is abolished, millers 
generally will stand a better chance in this respect. It 
is absolute nonsense, to have a person authorized by 
legislative enactment, to pass his judgment on this great 
staple of our country. We might just as well say in- 
spectors are necessary to inspect cloth, cotton, or any 
other article that the merchant has to sell. But almost 
any man may be his own inspector, if he considers or 
becomes acquainted with the essentials requisite to be 
considered in inspecting flour, and they are — ^first, co- 
lour; the degree of fines, next; and these constitute 
the leading principles of inspection. For all samples 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 133 

of flour that possess a bright-orange cast, and feels 
lively, and possesses a fine grit on feeling it between the 
thumb and forefinger,— such a sample as this does not 
require four cents per barrel for an inspector to saj that 
it is good. If the flour is too speckj, it will not pos- 
sess the bright-orange cast, as described, but exhibit a 
grayish colour, soon detected. But specks in flour, 
when it does not change the colour of it to a gray, is 
no injury, but an advantage,— for the flour contains 
more nutriment, when made on No. 8 bolting-cloth, than 
the finer texture,— as the speck of flour is generally 
composed of the glutinous substance contained in the 
wheat, and gives that body to flour made on No. 8 cloth, 
which flour made on finer cloth does not possess. Finer 
bolting-cloths allow all the starchy part of the wheat to 
pass through them, being always pulverized finer than 
the gluten, which is tougher and more elastic ; and the 
less of the latter, the more valuable ; and I further lay 
it down as an established fact, that flour possessing a 
good rich orange-colour should never deter the pur- 
chaser from buying it, specks to the contrary notwith- 
standing. 

For the accommodation of dealers in the staple of 
flour, a better plan can be resorted to than the old sys- 
tem, of maintaining an officer for that specific purpose, 
as follows: — The board of trade in each commercial 
city should have a register of all flour-brands coming 
for sale to their particular markets. This register should 
state what State and county said flour came from, the 
name of the mill, and all particular marks on the same, 



184 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

and also the quality of said flour when registered, in 
the following style,— as fine superfine No. 1, No. 2, No. 
3,— these being the highest, or extra grade. This sys- 
tem would have a desired influence, as by it all persons 
could have the character of their particular mills fully 
established, according to the quality of their flour. 
This register should be established by some municipal 
law, and monthly report of said register be made and 
published by the leading commercial papers of the city, 
or market, where such register is kept. 

Any city or market adopting the foregoing observa- 
tions, would insure a benefit equal to that derived now 
from the use of the bank-note detector. 



REPOUT 



On the Breadstuffs of the United States, — their relative 
value, and the injury which they sustain hy transport, 
warehousing, &c. — By Lewis C. Beck, M. D. 

Rutgers' College, \ 

New Brunswick, JV. J., Dec. 15, 1848. J 

Sir ; — ^I beg leave to submit, in as concise a manner 
as possible, the results of my researches in regard to the 
breadstuffs of the United States, since April last. The 
work has been prosecuted in accordance with the instruc- 
tions which I have received from you : and I hope its 
execution, thus far, will commend itself to your favour 
and to that of the public. Being impressed with its 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 135 

importancej I have spared no pains to prepare myself 
for the faithful discharge of the trust with which you 
have been pleased to honour me. 

I deem it proper to state distinctly, that my constant 
aim has been to render this investigation useful. My 
object has been to show, in the simplest manner, and 
with as few technicalities as possible, how the value of 
the various breadstuffs may be determined, their injury 
guarded against, and their adulterations detected. 
Whilst I am by no means insensible to the importance 
of accuracy, and yield a willing homage to those who 
are engaged in minute and careful analyses, I supposed 
that the purpose which you had in view would be best 
accomplished by the employment of such processes as 
may be easily understood, and even repeated, by all those 
who feel sufficient interest in the subject to read the 
description which I shall give of them. I concur en- 
tirely in the remarks made by a reviewer of the first 
report on coals suited to the (British) steam navy, "That 
the neglect of government to aid science is due, in a 
great measure, to the mistaken views of scientific men. 
They have too often overlooked or disregarded those 
matters which have a practical tendency, which poli- 
ticians alone consider of importance/' — " Men engaged 
in maintaining the balance of power and regulating the 
complicated machinery of a great commercial and manu- 
facturing commonwealth, however capacious their minds, 
cannot be expected to entertain the theoretical views of 
the philosopher, who sacrifices his knowledge of the 
world to his love of science." 



136 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

I thouglit it proper thus to announce the plan which 
has been adopted in these researches, to render them 
useful to the many^ without attempting to make addi- 
tions to the already accumulated stores of the few. As 
the people, through their representatives, have furnished 
the means for carrying on this work, they are entitled 
to receive all the benefits which are to be derived from it. 

I have only to add, that my attention, thus far, has 
been almost exclusively directed to wheat and wheat 
flour. I propose, during the next year, should the work 
be continued, to extend the examination to such samples 
of these as may hereafter be received, and then to pro- 
ceed to that of maize and maize meal, which have re- 
cently become such important articles of export. 
I have the honour to be your obedient servant, 

Lewis C. Beck. 
To the Hon. Edmund Burke, 

Commissioner of Patents, 



REPORT. 

Agriculture, commerce, and the arts constitute the 
chief business of the industrious portions of our race, 
and it is to the physical peculiarities of a country that 
we are chiefly to refer the predominance of one or other 
of these pursuits. Thus England, with her vast mine- 
ral wealth and her dense population, must, almost of 
necessity, be a manufacturing nation; and, although 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 137 

she is also noted for her extended commerce and her 
improved agriculture, the great attention which she has 
paid to the latter may, perhaps, be fairly ascribed to 
those peculiar views concerning the interchange between 
nations which have heretofore prevailed. The rich and 
valuable mines of the central portions of the continent 
of Europe, and the numerous arts which can flourish only 
in their immediate vicinity, must ever give occupation 
to a large portion of their inhabitants. Comparatively 
few commercial advantages are enjoyed by them, and the 
produce of their agriculture seldom rises above the 
amount which is necessary for the supply of their own 
immediate wants. In all these countries, therefore, the 
failure of a single crop is the cause of serious apprehen- 
sion, and in some of them, as in Austria, although a 
large proportion of the population is engaged in agri- 
culture, there is need of a yearly importation of bread- 
stuffs. This has been ascribed to a defective mode of 
tillage, but I am inclined to believe that it arises, in part 
at least, if not entirely, from the high price of the land. 
It is the large returns which the farmer must extort 
from the soil in order to meet the interest of the heavy 
investment, which discourages him in his efforts, and 
which at length has the effect of diminishing the amount 
of the agricultural products. All the appliances of sci- 
ence and art may be called into requisition to increase 
the yield of the soil, but every improvement of this kind 
only increases the price of the land and amount of rent 
which must be raised from it. When we look at the 
contrast which the United States present in this respect, 



138 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

we need not wonder that, while travellers speak in rap- 
tures of the agriculture of France and Belgium, Ger- 
many and England, the famished population of some of 
those countries has been fed by the surplus produce of 
a comparatively rude mode of tillage. 

During the year 1847, breadstuffs to the value of 
$43,000,000 were exported from this country to Great 
Britain and Ireland alone. The vast agricultural re- 
sources of the United States were then for the first time 
duly appreciated. Notwithstanding the quantity export- 
ed during the present year bears no proportion to that 
of the preceding one, there can be little doubt that our 
country is destined to be the granary of the world. 
We cannot boast of those mineral riches which are found 
elsewhere; still, deposits of iron ore and coal, those most 
valuable products, exist here in great abundance.* But 
our chief treasure is the soil, and the immense extent of 
our republic, and the liberal policy which has been pur- 
sued in regard to the disposition of its lands, places it 
in the power of almost every inhabitant to become the 
owner of a domain, which in Europe could be possessed 
only by a favoured few. 

It is a common mistake that land which is in the 

* We must respectfully dissent from the learned professor 
in this part of his report, believing as we do, that no portion of 
the globe, known to either the ancients or moderns, surpasses 
the United States in the richness and purity of her mine- 
rals ; not even the gold of Ophir and Tarshish will bear com- 
parison with the products of the El Dorado and Sacramento 
of California. 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 139 

highest state of cultivation, and yields the largest crops, 
is necessarily the most valuable. It is stated by Bous- 
singault, that a field in the neighbourhood of Pampeluna, 
where the rent of land is extremely low, gave a profita- 
ble crop of wheat, although the yield was not more than 
from six and a half to seven and a half bushels per acre, 
^' An English farmer," says Washington, in a letter ad- 
dressed to Arthur Young, " must have a very difi"erent 
opinion of our soil when he hears that with us an acre 
produces no more than eight or ten bushels of wheat; 
but he must not forget that in all countries where land 
is cheap and labour is dear, the people prefer cultivating 
much to cultivating well.'' 

It is this very extent of our country, and the cheap- 
ness of the land, which now, as at the date of the letter 
of Washington, contribute to render our comparatively 
rude culture the most profitable in the world. Thus, 
while the average of the produce of wheat in the United 
States is not probably above 15 or 16 bushels to the 
acre, that in Germany is more than 25 bushels; in 
England, 25 or 26; and in France, 24. Still, as has 
been already stated, the amount of breadstuffs raised 
here, far exceeds that produced in either of the coun- 
tries above named. And the same consideration, viz. 
cheapness of land, together with the rapid and cheap 
rate at which, by machinery, the crop is harvested and 
made ready for the miller, must give to the Western 
States and Territories great advantages for the cultiva- 
tion of the cereal grain. 

As there is no probability that, for many years to 



140 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

come, our population will be over-crowded, and the price 
of good cultivable land be much increased, it is easy to 
see what must become the leading occupation of the 
multitude who will here seek refuge from the poverty 
and oppression of other countries. The truth of this 
proposition will probably be quite apparent to those whose 
attention has been directed to the subject. But a large 
number of our citizens have no just idea of the agricul- 
tural resources of the United States. One object of 
this report, therefore, is to spread out the facts, and to 
give them the widest publicity ; to show, indeed, that 
while commerce and the arts must give employment to 
a great number of persons, our great business is agricul- 
ture; and that the true interests of the country will be 
promoted by giving to this pursuit all necessary encou- 
ragement. 

I have said that our mode of culture is still compara- 
tively rude. It was quaintly remarked to a traveller, by 
the gardener of Drummond Castle, that, "If science once 
gets into the farmer's ground, it penetrates into the 
very heart of a nation." This is perhaps true; but it 
must be confessed that, thus far, the influence of science 
upon agriculture has been very trifling, when compared 
with the vast improvements which it has effected in the 
arts. The difference proceeds principally from two 
causes, assigned by Count Chaptal : " The first is, that 
the greater part of the phenomena offered to us by agri- 
culture are the effects of the laws of vitality, which go- 
vern the functions of plants, and these laws are still, in 
a great measure, unknown to us; whilst in the arts, 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 141 

which are exercised upon rude and inorganic matter, all 
is regulated, all is produced by the action either of phy- 
sical laws only, or of simple affinity, which are known 
to us. The second cause is, that, in order to apply the 
physical sciences to agriculture, it is necessary to study 
their operations profoundly, not only in the closet, but 
in the field.'' It will not, therefore, appear surprising 
that the researches which have been made in regard to 
plants have often assumed a wrong direction, and have 
not led to those important results which were promised 
upon the one side and expected upon the other. Thus 
most of the analyses of the proximate principles of 
plants, not having been made upon such as are in a per- 
fectly pure state, are to be considered only as approxi- 
mations of the truth. The same remark will, in a great 
measure, apply to the numerous determinations of the 
quality and quantity of the ash obtained by the com- 
bustion of the grains used as breadstufis. " The grain 
is an assemblage of various distinct parts, differing from 
one another in composition, and varying also very much 
in their relative proportions. So, also, the dried stem of 
a plant, the entire straw of a cereal grass, may be burn- 
ed in like manner. But this, too, is an assemblage of 
many parts. The exterior less vascular portion, the 
interior full of vessels, the fluids which circulate through 
them, all contain their peculiar inorganic substances, 
and all vary almost endlessly in their relative propor- 
tions." 

Similar objections might be urged against the ana- 
lyses of soils, which have been so vigorously prose- 



142 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

cuted by many chemists. That the facts which have 
thus accumulated may have some value, is not to be 
doubted ; but they must, after all, be considered as only 
introductory to researches conducted with a more just 
appreciation of their true influence upon the improve- 
ment of agriculture. It is to be feared that, in many 
cases, these almost useless labours have been suggested 
by the crude and hasty generalizations which, unfortu- 
nately, within a few years past, have too often usurped 
the place of patient inquiry. A recent writer has well 
observed, that, ^' Of the classes which have been thus 
led away, there has been none which has been so far 
misguided as the sober one of farmer. It is to him that 
the vegetable quack appeals, offering, in the application 
of chemical manures, electricity, magnetism, and other 
agents, harvests more golden than the world had ever 
seen before.'^ 

I trust it will not be inferred from any of the remarks 
which I have made, that I undervalue the importance 
of physical science in the improvement of agriculture. 
On the contrary, I doubt not that, with a right appre- 
ciation of its objects and a true direction of its labours, it 
is destined to contribute greatly to increasing the pro- 
ductiveness of the soil. But such results cannot be imme- 
diately realized. ^' Years of experiment must pass by, 
numerous failures must be experienced, before the real 
advantages of scientific farming will be evident." It is 
sincerely to be hoped that the false expectations which 
have been, from time to time, held out by visionary 
men, may not have the effect of exciting, in the minds 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 143 

of agriculturists, a prejudice against all the improve- 
ments which may hereafter be proposed. 

The chief breadstuffs of the United States are wheat, 
rje, maize, and buckwheat. Of these, the first is by far 
the most important, and it is to its history, culture, and 
chemical examination, that particular attention is now to 
be directed. 

Wheat—Wheat is the principal breadstuff of the 
United States and of most European nations. This as 
well as the other cereal grasses, has probably come to 
us from the East ; but it has been so much changed 
and improved by culture, that its connection cannot be 
satisfactorily traced to any species of the genus now 
known to be growing wild. Of all the cereals, it is that 
which requires most heat, and its culture first begins to 
be of importance below 60° north latitude in Europe, 
and considerably below that line on our continent. From 
the meteorological observations which have been made, 
we infer that a mean heat of at least 39° Fahrenheit is 
necessary for the growth of wheat, and that during three 
or four months. The mean summer heat must rise 
above 55° Fahrenheit. It does not, however, bear tro- 
pical heat well ; in countries within the tropics, it first 
occurs at altitudes which, in climate, correspond with 
the sub-tropical and temperate zones. 

There is a fact stated by the author just quoted which 
exhibits, in a striking manner, the advantages our coun- 
try must possess for raising and transporting the produce 
of this important cereal. It is, that although wheat is 
very productive and of excellent quality in Chili and 



144 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

the Republic of Rio de la Plata, and immense quantities 
are sent to Peru, and even around Cape Horn to Rio 
Janeiro, yet North American flour is sold at the market 
of Valparaiso, and the bakers are obliged to buy it, as 
it is cheaper than the flour made in the country, because 
there are no roads in the interior, and wages are exceed- 
ingly high from want of sufficient hands. 

There are few parts of the United States in which 
wheat may not be raised ; but the productiveness of the 
crop is influenced by various circumstances, as soil, cli- 
mate, and expense of transport to the great commercial 
depots. These, and the more profitable cultivation of 
other articles, as tobacco, rice, cotton, and the sugar- 
cane, have nearly fixed the southern limit of the wheat- 
growing region of the United States in North Carolina. 
The particular districts, however, in which the culture 
of this cereal is most successfully prosecuted, are the 
western parts of New York and Pennsylvania, Ohio, 
and the north western States and Territories. The rich 
and virgin soil of the western prairies seems to be pecu- 
liarly adapted to the growth of wheat; and the great 
lines of communication which are already established 
between these and the Atlantic cities afford every faci- 
lity for the transport of the surplus produce. 

It has been already remarked, that the profits of the 
culture of this cereal do not depend upon the yield per 
acre, but upon the cheapness of the land and the eco- 
nomy practised in its management. The want of »pre- 
cise information upon these cardinal points renders the 
statements which have been made, in regard to the pro- 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 145 

ductiveness of wheat in various parts of the world, of 
little practical value. Thus, when we are told by Meyen 
that in Prussia the average produce of wheat is not more 
than five or six fold of the seed ; that in Hungary and 
Croatia it is from eight to ten fold ; and that in some 
parts of Mexico the produce in favourable years is from 
twenty-four to thirty-five fold ; — the information is of 
no use to the farmer, because the relative expenses of 
the culture and the value of the crop are not stated. 

Notwithstanding what has been said concerning the 
profitable culture of wheat in large portions of the United 
States, and the probability that the great West will here- 
after furnish the principal supply for export, we should 
by no means overlook those causes which exert an influ- 
ence upon the productiveness and quality of this grain. 
It has been ascertained without doubt that the real value 
of wheat, and of the other cereals and breadstuff's, de- 
pends mainly upon the proportion of gluten and albu- 
men which they contain — their starch, glucose, and 
dextrine, or gum, not being considered nutritive. It 
appears, also, that wheat exceeds all the other cereals 
in the quantity of nutritive matter which it yields. 
Another advantage which it possesses is, that it fur- 
nishes also a greater quantity of flour ; for fourteen 
pounds of wheat yield thirteen pounds of flour, while 
fourteen pounds of oats yield only eight pounds, and an 
equal quantity of barley but twelve pounds. 

That wheat is peculiarly sensible to eff'ects of soil and 
climate appears to be a well-established fact. It is 
stated that even in diff"erent parts of England, the crops 

13 



146 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

and their produce are very various. The Sicilian and 
southern wheat generally contains a larger proportion 
of gluten than that from more northern countries. 
This, no doubt, arises from its more rapid growth, its 
harder and tougher grain, and its less proportion of 
moisture. Hence, also, it keeps better, and commands 
a higher price in market, especially when required for 
exportation. I have reason to believe, however, that 
the superiority of southern wheat has usually been over- 
estimated, and that the proof almost always adduced of 
its containing more gluten than that from the north, viz. 
its employment in the manufacture of macaroni and 
vermicelli, is by no means conclusive. 

One of the most important points connected with the 
subject of wheat and wheat flour is the proportion of 
water or moisture which they contain. We have the 
high authority of Boussingault for the statement, that, 
in France, ^^it is undoubtedly in consequence of the 
the large quantity of water which the northern wheats 
contain, that we meet with such indifferent success when 
we attempt to keep them for any length of time in our 
granaries. The wheat of Alsace, for example, fre- 
quently contains 16 to 20 per cent, of moisture; and I 
have ascertained by various experiments, that it is almost 
impossible to keep it without change in vessels hermeti- 
cally sealed. To secure its keeping, the proportion of 
water must be reduced from 8 to 10 per cent., and this 
is nearly the quantity of moisture contained in the hard 
and horny wheat of warm countries. 

In five analyses of London flours, by Mr. J, Mitchell, 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 147 

the proportion of water varies from 14.10 to 17.40 per 
cent. 

The proportions of water in the above samples range 
much higher than those given in the analyses of various 
flours performed by Yanquelin, which are from 8 to 12 
per cent. They are also higher than those in the United 
States flours, the range of moisture being, in the samples 
which I have analyzed, from 12 to 14 per cent. 

This difl'erence in the proportion of water, which 
seems to be a matter of so much consequence, is un- 
doubtedly, in part, due to the difl'erence in the climate 
of the region in which the wheat is grown. This, in- 
deed, is so well understood to be true, that the amount 
of bread obtained from difterent kinds of wheat flour is 
referred to the same cause. Thus " it has been shown, 
by a comparative experiment tried some years ago upon 
Scotch and English wheat, of apparently equal quality, 
that a quarter of the latter, though yielding rather less 
flour, yet, when made into bread, gave 13 pounds more 
than the former. This is accounted for by the greater 
strength of sunshine, under the climate of England, 
having an eff"ect upon the grain when ripening, which 
occasions the flour to absorb more water in the forma- 
tion of dough .'^ 

From experiments which seem to be trustworthy, it 
appears that the Alabama, and the southern wheat flours 
generally, yield more bread than the northern or western. 
The gain in favour of the Alabama, as compared with 
the Cincinnati, is said to be 20 per cent. It is also 
stated, by one of the most extensive London bakers, 



148 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

that American flour will absorb 8 or 10 per cent, more 
of its own weight of water, in manufacturing it into 
bread or biscuit, than the English wheat. The English 
wheat, of the same variety with the American, is inva- 
riably a larger and plumper berry. This is attributed 
to the longer time required for ripening in that compa- 
ratively cooler and damper climate. The American, on 
the contrary, in ripening under a hot sun, evaporates a 
large proportion of water, and leaves the farina in a 
more condensed state ; and when exposed again to mois- 
ture in cooling, it absorbs the additional quantity above 
stated. This is an important fact, of which the dealer 
and consumer should be fully aware. 

No apology is necessary for the details which will be 
presented concerning the effect of water or moisture 
upon this cereal, as it is a subject worthy of the most 
serious consideration. Although, as has been observed, 
the proportion of water in the wheat and wheat flour of 
the United States is generally less than in those of Eng- 
land, France, and the north of Europe, it is often in 
sufficient quantity to cause great losses, especially when 
shipped to tropical countries. So early as the year 1814, 
attention was directed to this in a valuable series of pa- 
pers published by Mr. Jonas Humbert, of New York, a 
large dealer in flour, and at one time a deputy inspector 
of that article. He states, that since the Eevolution, 
the price of the New York wheat flour, in the markets 
of Europe and the West Indies, had been gradually fall- 
ing below that of Pennsylvania and Virginia. He as- 
serts, as the result of his own experiments, that the New 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 149 

York flour* is equal to that obtained from wlieat raised 
in any other State or country; and he attributes the 
deterioration in the price of the former to carelessness 
on the part of those who are engaged in its preparation 
and shipment. Among the points which he enumerated 
are, a want of attention to the ventilation and proper 
drying of the grain before it is ground, the rapid and 
improper mode of grinding, re-grinding the middlings, 
and mixing therewith the portion first ground, and also 
the still more objectionable practice, perhaps still fol- 
lowed, of mixing old and spoiled flour with newly-ground 
wheat. 

It is stated that in Poland, where the ventilation and 
drying are continued for some time, wheat has been pre- 
served sound and good for half a century ; its age never 
does it injury, and such wheat is said to yield handsomer 
and better flour than that obtained from the grain more 
recently harvested. In Dantzic, the preparation for 
keeping wheat continues for a year, and sometimes 

* We entirely concur witii Mr. Humlbert in the statement — 
New York flour being equal to that obtained from wheat raised 
in any other State ; knowing, as we do, that at least one-half 
of the flour made in that State is manufactured from wheat 
grown in the western States, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Wis- 
consin, and Illinois ; and also the want of proper attention to 
properly drying the grain before grinding, by which it might 
be cleansed from all impure substances, occasioned by expo- 
sure to dampness, which creates decomposition of the grain, 
and renders it useless for manufacturing into good flour, with- 
out some instantaneous remedy ; and drying stops further 
decomposition. — The Author. 
13* 



150 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

longer ; after this period, it is often kept for seven years 
perfectly sound in the large granaries of that place, al- 
though surrounded hy the sea. 

In regard to American wheat and wheat flour, it may 
be remarked, that the proportion of water naturally ex- 
isting in them is often increased by carelessness in har- 
vesting the grain, and in its transport and storage. In one 
sample of Indiana wheat flour recently analyzed, which 
was sour, and had but little more than one -half the 
usual quantity of gluten, the injury was probably 
caused by the hurried mode of packing, for the changes 
above noticed occurred before the opening of summer. 
Sometimes, however, our flour is spoiled by being stored 
in damp, warm, and ill-ventilated warehouses. The 
books of one inspector of the city of New York shows 
that, in 1847, he inspected 218,679 barrels of sour and 
musty flour. He certifies that in this amount he is of 
opinion that there was a loss sustained of $250,000. 
But, as no flour that is known to be sour or bad is in- 
spected, this statement gives a very imperfect idea of 
the loss incurred, even in that city. The total amount 
of loss for the whole United States, arising from chemi- 
cal changes in breadstuffs by internal moisture, has been 
estimated at from $3,000,000 to $5,000,000. 

Some remarks upon this subject, recently published 
by Mr, Brondgeest, of Hamilton, Canada West, deserve 
to be here introduced. This gentleman has paid much 
attention to the preservation of food, both as a merchant 
and as president of the board of trade of Montreal and 
of Hamilton, He notices an article on the " Preserva- 



AND MILLWUIGKT's ASSISTANT. 151 

tion of Food/' in the January number of the Westmin- 
ster, the author of which proposes the exclusion of air, 
by an air-pump or otherwise, as a remedy for injuries 
sustained by breadstuffs; and very justly observes that 
these extreme measures are wholly unnecessary, as ar- 
rangements perfectly feasible will answer the purpose. 
He admits the necessity of something being done, as 
the present system is wasteful, and contrary, in many 
respects, to common sense ; the warehousing of grain is 
defective in every point of view. The common mode 
of shipping wheat or other grain in bulks is the cause 
of injury with American grain, and, I doubt not, also 
with the European. The emptying of grain loose into 
barges not over dry -, spray and moisture on the voyage 
to the shipping port; exposure to the weather while 
being shipped, damp lining boards, damp vessels, damp 
during the voyage, and then again being exposed in a 
lighter, and put away in a damp warehouse, or in a low 
situation on the bank of a river;— all tend to the de- 
struction even of the finest particles of grain. 

As remedies for all these injurious influences, Mr. 
Brondgeest proposes the shipment of grain in barrels, 
like flour, and the proper kiln-drying of such varieties 
as are known not to keep well. The souring of flour, 
either on the river or sea voyage, or after warehousing, 
he adds, "can be perfectly prevented by the use of the 
kiln, either to the flour, or the wheat prior to grinding;* 



* In all cases, the drying and extracting of moisture should 
be done before the grain is ground. — Author. 



152 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

one-third to one-fifth of the wheat being highly dried, 
makes the whole keep perfectly for years; and that 
third or fifth may be of the cheap spring grain, making 
much stronger and better fiour, but which, if not kiln- 
dried, would sour the whole/^ 

In the Report of the Commissioner of Patents, dated 
March, 1844, there are some statements of interest in 
regard to kiln-dried flour and meal. From these it 
appears, that Ohio flour, after having been subjected to 
the drying process, was kept in the southern and South 
American ports in good merchantable ©rder, and in 
weather in which other flour not thus prepared invaria- 
bly spoiled. The process of drying here noticed was 
conducted by the employment of hot air ; and Mr. Gill, 
who claims the invention, states that 18 pounds of water 
are thus expelled from a barrel of flour. 

There can be no doubt, therefore, that the removal 
of a portion of the water which wheat flour and maize 
meal naturally contain, is the easiest and best means 
of preserving them. But the drying process, simple as 
it may seem, requires to be carried on with great care. 
The passage of the grain or flour, however rapidly, over 
highly-heated surfaces, is apt to scorch, and thus give 
them an unpleasant flavour. From the rapid evolution 
of the moisture, in the form of steam, by the heat thus 
applied, unless proper ventilation be also secured, fur- 
ther injury will probably result. The steam, again con- 
densing into water upon the cooling of the flour, may 
accumulate in particular parts of the mass operated on, 
and thus, perhaps, render it at least equally as liable to 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 153 

injury as it would have been without the employment 
of this process. 

Another fact, which I have observed in those samples 
of wheat flour that have been exposed to a degree of heat 
high enough to expel all the water, is, that the gluten is 
less tough and elastic — a proof that its quality has been 
impaired. It is probable that the proportions of dex- 
trine and glucose may thus also be increased at the ex- 
pense of the starch. Under these circumstances, a 
subsequent exposure to moisture and a slight elevation 
of temperature, establishes the lactic acid fermentation, 
which, I siippose, is the chief cause of the souring of 
flour. 

The advantages to be derived from artificial drying 
are more fully attained by the invention patented by 
Mr. J. E. Stafford, in 1847, than by any other plan 
with which I am acquainted. It is based upon the pro- 
cess for drying organic bodies usually adopted in the 
laboratory. The grain or flour is brought into contact 
with a surface of metal heated by steam, and a due de- 
gree of ventilation, so important to the completion of 
the drying, is secured. As the heat is not raised above 
that of boiling water, there is no danger of injuring the 
quality, colour, or flavour of the substances subjected 
to its action. The heat is, moreover, uniform, and the 
expense is said to be less than that of the mode of dry- 
ing heretofore generally adopted. By Mr. Stafford's 
apparatus, 16 or 17 pounds of water are expelled from 
each barrel of flour ; this reduces the proportion of wa- 
ter to four or five per cent., an amount too slnall to be 



154 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

productive of injury. Absolute dryness cannot be easily 
attained, except by a long exposure of the flour to the 
heat, and it is not required for its preservation ; a re- 
duction of the amount of water to the small per centage 
just stated, has been found to be amply sujficient to 
secure this object. I cannot, in my opinion, render a 
more important service to dealers in breadstuffs, than to 
recommend strongly the employment of this or a simi- 
lar process of drying. 

After the proper ventilation and drying of the grain 
Las been efl'ected, there is still another point deserving 
of some consideration. This is the absorptive power of 
the different kinds of flour, which I have found by ex- 
periment to be subject to considerable variation. The 
amount of moisture absorbed by the various samples 
which have been tried, after having been brought to a 
state of absolute dryness, ranges from 8 to 11.65 per 
cent., by an exposure to the air of a room for from 18 
to 24 hours. This difl'erence in the hygrometic charac- 
ter of flours must, I think, have an influence upon their 
preservation, and will perhaps account for the fact, that 
with the same degree of carelessness and the same ex- 
posure, some kinds are more liable to spoil than others. 
The remedies for all the difficulties to be apprehended 
from this source, are the employment of tight barrels, 
and the avoidance of all unnecessary exposure of their 
contents to the air. 

Some remarks may be added, more definitely to ex- 
plain the various modes in which flour, especially, is 
injured by the presence of an undue proportion of water, 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 155 

under the influence of a warm climate. The general 
result is a diminution in the quantity of gluten, or such 
a change in its quality as renders it unfit to produce 
good panification. It sometimes also favours the forma- 
tion of sporules of different kinds of mushrooms, which 
are afterwards developed in the bread. 

Dumas states, that the wheat of 1841 exhibited, in 
1842, during a very warm summer, this defect in a very 
great degree. When these mushrooms were developed, 
the temperature was much elevated, and the bread soon 
disappeared, leaving only a reddish and disgusting mass. 
The number of sporules was much diminished by the 
thorough washing of the infected grain, followed by 
prompt desiccation. By reducing the proportion of 
water, increasing the dose of salt, and finally by raising 
the temperature of the oven, the development was in a 
measure prevented. 

A few years since, I observed reddish sporules, similar 
to those above noticed, in a sample of New Jersey flour. 
The change took place in twenty-four hours after it had 
been made into paste with water. On repeating the 
experiment, the same result followed. 

According to Dumas, moisture and heat, which often 
cause such changes in the most important constituent 
of wheat flour, produce very little effect upon the starch 
which it contains. Although it is with some hesitation 
that I dissent from such high authority, the following 
facts appear to me to show that this idea is an incor- 
rect one : — 

Starch is known to be composed of particles which 



156 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

are insoluble in cold water; but when exposed to a heat 
of 180° F._, the pellicle of the grain bursts, and the 
contents are liberated. In a state of solution, it is 
quickly converted into dextrine and glucose, or grape- 
sugar, by the addition of a small quantity of diastase * 
If this mixture be kept in a warm place for a few days, 
it acquires a new property, viz., that of converting the 
glucose into lactic acid. This is denominated the lactic 
acid fermentation; and, as I have before suggested, it 
is probably one of the causes of the souring of flour, 
when exposed to high summer heats in its ordinary 
moist condition. Hence, it will be found that, while 
in sour flour the quantity of gluten is usually dimin- 
ished, or its quantity injured, the proportions of glucose 
and dextrine are also, in many cases, increased at the 
expense of the starch— a change which precedes the de- 
velopment of the lactic fluid. 

One of the best modes of determining the real value 
of wheat and other flours, is to examine the bread made 
from them. The process of panification brings out all 
their defects j and as the researches upon breadstufi"s 
are conducted chiefly with the view of ascertaining their 
suitableness for the manufacture of bread, it affords a 
good standard of comparison for the various samples 
subjected to experiment. It should be remembered, 
however, that bread is sometimes adulterated for the 
very purpose af enabling those who are engaged in its 



* This is a peculiar nitrogenous principle, wMch exists in 
the grain of the cereals after germination commences. 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 157 

fabrication to use the poorer kinds of flour. Thus, 
Dumas states that in Belgium and the north of France, 
sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) has long been intro- 
duced into the manufacture of bread. By the employ- 
ment of this salt, the bakers can use flour of middling 
and mixed quality; less labour is required in its prepa- 
ration, the panification is more speedy, and by its addi- 
tion a larger quantity of water is taken up. 

The use of alum, in the fabrication of bread, seems 
to have been practised from a remote period. This, it 
is said, also secures to the baker the advantage of em- 
ploying inferior kinds of wheat flour, and even of mix- 
ing with the farina of beans and peas, without appa- 
rently injuring the quality of the bread. 

The alkaline carbonates, the carbonate of magnesia, 
chalk, pipe-clay, and plaster of Paris, have all been used 
either to correct the acidity of damaged flour, to pre- 
serve the moisture, or to increase the weight and white- 
ness of the bread. But it need scarcely be observed, 
that all these substances, with perhaps the exception of 
small additions of the alkaline carbonates, must render 
the bread unwholesome. Fortunately, however, the 
presence of most of them can be quite easily detected. 

Other frauds which have been resorted to, are more 
difficult of detection ; but these are, happily, less preju- 
dicial to health, although not always perfectly harmless. 
Among these may be mentioned the adulteration of 
wheat flour with potato starch, the flour of leguminous 
plants, buckwheat, rice, linseed, &c. Mareska, in a re- 
cent paper, states that he has had occasion to examine 

14 



158 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

several samples in whicli these frauds had been prac- 
tised, and lie describes several processes by which their 
occurrence may be ascertained. 

According to a statement made by a quarter-master in 
the United States army, one barrel of flour, or 196 lbs., 
when in dough, contains about 11 gallons, or 90 pounds 
of water, 2 gallons of yeast, and 3 pounds of salt,— 
making a mass of 305 pounds, which evaporates in 
kneading and baking about 40 pounds, leaving in bread 
about 265 pounds ; the bread thus exceeded in weight 
the flour employed, by about 33.50 per cent. 

Dumas informs us, that 130 pounds of the common 
white bread of Paris are obtained from 100 pounds of 
flour. To this he adds, that the flour contains 17 per 
cent, of water, the produce being then equivalent to 
150 pounds of bread from 100 pounds of flour. As 
the American wheat seldom contains more than 14 per 
cent, of water, the statement of the quarter-master cor- 
responds very nearly with that of the French chemists. 
The increase of weight in the bread over that of the 
flour, viz., 33.50 per cent., ought to afi'ord an ample 
remuneration for its manufacture. But it is not unfre- 
quently the case, that larger demands are made by those 
who are engaged in this important branch of art. 

The deficiency in the weight of bread, and the extent 
of the imposition practiced in the sale of loaves at a cer- 
tain price, can, in general, be very easily ascertained. 
For example, the proper weight of the shilling loaf 
(New York currency) may be determined by reducing 
the price of flour to shillings, and then dividing 196 by 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 159 

this amount. Thus, the price of flour being $7 a bar- 
rel, (which is a sufficiently high average for even the best 
brands during the year past,) the shilling loaf should 
weigh three and a half pounds. For, 

7 times 8=56; 196--56=3.50. 
This will leave twenty loaves of the same weight, or 
$2.50 as the profit on the manufacture. 

Although the whiteness of bread is considered as a 
mark of its goodness, it has been ascertained by Profes- 
sor Johnston, that fine flour contains a less proportion 
of nutritive matter than the whole meal. The correct- 
ness of this view has been confirmed during present 
investigation; for in two or three samples of wheat 
which I have analyzed, it was found that the amount of 
gluten in the fine flour was less than in the flour passed 
through a coarser seive and containing a larger propor- 
tion of bran. 

These results, according to Professor Johnston, are 
to be accounted for on the supposition that the part of 
the grain which is most abundant in starch crushes 
better and more easily under the millstones than that 
which, being richest in gluten, is probably also tougher, 
and less brittle. They are also consistent with the 
greater nourishment generally supposed to reside in 
household-bread, made from the flour of the whole grain. 
But such is the controlling influence of custom, that 
it is perhaps in vain to attempt a change, even though 
its benefits may be clearly proved by the researches of 
science, and by an extensive experience. 



160 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

Analyses of Wheat Flour. 

Before presenting the details of my analyses, it may 
not be amiss to offer a few explanations in regard to some 
researches of a similar kind, which have heretofore been 
made. The discrepancies in the published results of 
various analyses arise principally, I apprehend, from the 
different processes which have been employed. 

The table published in Davy's Agricultural Chemistry 
gives the proportions of gluten or albumen in English 
Middlesex wheat at 19.00 per cent.; in Sicilian wheat, 
23.90 per cent.; in Poland wheat, 20.00 per cent.; and in 
North American wheat, 22.50. The mode pursued by 
this celebrated chemist has not, so far as I know, been 
published, but the amount of nutritive principle is 
larger than that usually obtained; a circumstance which 
may, perhaps, be ascribed to its being imperfectly dried. 

In the table containing the results of Vanquelin's 
analysis of wheat flours, the proportions of gluten are 
generally much lower than those obtained by Davy. 
Thus, in common French flour, the gluten is 10.96 per 
cent.; flour of hard Odessa wheat, 14.53 per cent.; flour 
from the bakers of Paris, 10.20 per cent, 

Boussingault, adopting the plan of determining the 
amount of azotized principles by immediate ultimate 
analysis, has obtained a larger per centage of the nu- 
tritive principle than either of the above-named chem- 
ists. Thus, he states that the hard African wheat con- 
tains of gluten and albumen, 26.50 per cent.; Sicilian 
wheat, 24.30 per cent.; Dantzic wheat, 22.70 per cent. 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 161 

He gives reasons, wliicli, to a certain extent, account for 
the larger quantity of azotized principles which he found 
in the samples of flour, and adds, '■'■ that the varieties of 
wheat, the flour of which was analyzed, were all grown 
in the rich soil of the garden, a circumstance which, as 
Hermbstadt has shown, exerts the most powerful influ- 
ence in increasing the quantity of gluten in wheat/' 

Dr. Eobert D. Thomson has also published the re- 
' suits of several analyses of wheat flour. The proportion 
of the nutritive principle was deduced from the quantity 
of ammonia formed from the azote contained in the 
sample. According to this chemist, Canada flour contains 
13.81 per cent, of the nutritive principle, (gluten and 
albumen;) Lothian flour, 12.30 percent.; United States 
flour, 11.37 per cent., and another sample of the same, 
10.99 per cent. 

It is not easy to understand why Canadian flour should 
rank so much higher than that from the United States. 
The sample named Canadian flour in the table may have 
been, in fact, brought from this side of the line, for it 
is sta.ted that our wheat is carried to Canada, there 
ground into flour, and taken to England under Canadian 
duty. One house at Cleveland is said to have shipped, 
during the last summer and fall, 36,000 bushels of 
wheat, which was ground at St. Catharine's, on the 
Welland Canal, and sent to London under contract. 

Mr. Mitchell, in his analyses of various London flours, 
obtained the following proportion of gluten, viz. : in 
fine flour, No. 1, 9.50 per cent.; in No. 2, 11.40 per 



162 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

cent. ; in second flouP; No. 1; 8.50 per cent.; in No. 2, 
7.70 per cent. 

After mature consideration, I determined to adopt the 
mode of analysis which shortly consists in separating 
the gluten by washing with cold water, and then sub- 
jecting the remaining constituents of the flour to other 
operations. I preferred this process, as being more 
easily executed, requiring less apparatus, and less skill 
and nicety of manipulation, than are demanded in the 
ultimate analysis. I have little doubt, moreover, that, 
for the practical purposes of this investigation, it is 
equally, if not more accurate ; for, with all the improve- 
ments which have been made in the method of deter- 
mining the amount of nitrogen in organic substances, it 
is not yet free from difficulties. I may also add, that 
the ultimate analysis fails to give us any information 
concerning the peculiar nature of the gluten — a point 
which is, perhaps, of as much consequence in settling 
the real value of flour, as the amount of that principle. 

The different steps of the analyses have, in all cases, 
been conducted with as much uniformity as possible ; 
one important object being to furnish a table of results 
whfch should, at least, show the relative value of the 
difi'erent samples subjected to trial. 

All the samples from abroad were received in tin 
boxes or glass bottles, carefully closed so as to prevent 
the access of external air. Thus, whether damaged or 
not, they were probably in nearly the same condition, 
when they came into my hands, as they were when 
put up. 



AND millwright's assistant. 163 

In proceeding with the analysis, 100 grains of the 
flour were put into a small Berlin-ware capsule, which 
had been previously counterpoised in a delicate balance. 

The capsule, with its contents, was then placed in a 
water-bath drying oven, and subjected to a heat of about 
212° Fahrenheit for from three to six or seven hours, 
or until, after rapid weighing, there was found to be no 
farther diminution of weight. The proportion of water 
in the sample was thus determined by the weight re- 
quired again to balance the capsule and its contents. 

A weighed portion of the flour, usually 100 grains, 
was next carefully kneaded into stiff paste or dough., by 
the cautious addition of pure water, and the dough thus 
formed allowed to remain in the cup for a few minutes. 
A fine linen cloth was stretched over the top of a bolt- 
ing-cloth sieve, and this again placed in a large Berlin- 
ware dish. The dough was now washed on the hand, 
over the sieve and cloth, with a small stream of water, 
and gently kneaded, from time to time, until all the 
starchy particles and the soluble matters were removed. 
The tough gluten was washed until the water ceased to 
become milky, and, after being carefully pressed out by 
the fingers, was subjected to the heat of a water-bath 
until perfectly dry ; an operation which sometimes occu- 
pied 10 or 12 hours. It was then weighed warm, and 
the amount noted. 

A sufficient quantity of water was now poured upon 
the linen cloth to carry down the starch, while any small 
particles of gluten, washed ofi" during the operation, 
were added to the mass. In those cases where the flour 



164 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

contained any considerable proportion of bran, the latter 
substance was found upon the linen cloth. 

The turbid washings were allowed to remain in the 
vessel, until the whole of the starch was deposited. The 
supernatant liquor was then removed by a pipette, the 
starch again washed, and the wash-water removed as 
before. The starch was now dried, subjected to the heat 
of the water-bath to expel all the water, and then quickly 
weighed. The clear liquor, removed from the starch, 
was evaporated at a boiling heat to near dryness, the 
complete desiccation being effected at a temperature of 
220° or 230° Fahrenheit. In some cases a few flocks, 
probably albumen, were observed floating in the liquid 
during the evaporation, but the quantity was usually so 
small, that I did not attempt to separate it. The re- 
siduum thus obtained was principally a mixture of sweet 
and gummy matter, with a small proportion of woody 
fibre and saline substances. As I ascertained that the 
sugar was the variety called glucose, or grape-sugar, and 
the gummy constituent was supposed to be dextrine, I 
have placed all the results of the evaporation of the 
clear liquor under these two heads. 

I may remark, that the gluten obtained by this pro- 
cess contains a small quantity of an oily matter, which 
I supposed to be about equal to that of the albumen in 
the clear solution separated from the starch. The pro- 
portions of gluten given in the following analyses will, 
therefore, very nearly represent the amount of nutritive 
matters contained in the various samples. 

In most cases, I carried out the analysis to the end, 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 165 

obtaining and weighing the several substances ; but as 
the principal object was to determine the quantity and 
quality of gluten, the process was occasionally stopped 
at this point. In a few other instances, the proportion 
of gluten, glucose, and dextrine were determined di- 
rectly, while the quantity of starch was estimated by 
difference. 

For convenience of reference, the analyses are ar- 
ranged under the head of the several States from whence 
the specimens were obtained. I regret that the number 
received from the South is so small, as I was very anxious 
to exhibit, in one view, the relative quantities of nutritive 
matter in the northern and southern flours. Should 
the investigation be continued, this point will claim my 
earliest attention. 

Several varieties of wheat sent from Amsterdam 
have been analyzed, (after being ground to fine flour,) 
principally for the purpose of comparing the results 
with those obtained from the samples from the United 
States. 



166 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 



RESULTS OF THE ANALYSES, 

Beginning with the States separately, where the variou 
Samples of Wheat were grown and manufactured. 

NEW JERSEY. 

Water 12.75 

Gluten 10.90 

Starcli 70.20 

Glucose, dextrine, &c 6.15 

100.00 

NEW YORK. 
The Aiialysis from pure Genesee Wheat, 

Water 13.35 

Gluten 12.82 

Starch 68.00 

Glucose, dextrine, &c 6.50 

100.67 

OHIO. 

Wheat Flour from Beaumont & HollingswortK s Mills 

Zanesville. 

Water 12.85 

Gluten 14.25 

Starcli 67.06 

Glucose, dextrine, &c 5.98 

100.14 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 167 

INDIANA. 
Wheat Flour from Forrest's Mills, Logansport. 

Water 12.85 

Oluten 11.90 

Starch 67.00 

Grlucose, dextrine; &c 8.25 

100.00 

ILLINOIS. "~ 

The Wheat Jioured in Oswego. 

Water 12.90 

Gluten 11.25 

Starch 66.00 

Glucose, dextrine, &c 8.60 

Bran 1.25 

100.00 

This sample is said to be of a dark colour, and scarcely 
fit to pass inspection; but the gluten being rich, the 
chemist pronounced it, in proportion, as above the ave- 
rage of western samples. 

MICHIGAN. 
Wheat Flour from Bruce Mills, 

Water 13.20 

Gluten 11.85 

Starch 65.60 

Glucose, dextrine, &c 8.60 

Bran 45 

99.70 



168 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

Wheat Flour from Monroe, Michigan. 

Water 13.10 

aiuten 10.40 

Starcli, glucose; dextrine 76.30 

Bran 20 

100.00 



[This I consider about the average of wheat grown in 
the State of Michigan, of all samples, except Mediterra- 
nean wheat, which appears to exceed all others in supe- 
rior richness of glutinous substance, generally weighing 
from 62 lbs. to 67 lbs. per measured bushel, and en- 
tirely resembling the sample of Russian wheat called 
Kubanka, and imported by Russia from the Mediterra- 
nean. It grows well in Michigan, but is not much liked 
by our merchant millers, from the fact of its possessing 
less starch than other samples of wheat j and in perspec- 
tive view, the flour does not show that white and delicate 
appearance that Michigan flour is so noted for. But in 
the loaf, it is very superior — the bread being very rich 
and moist, from the greater quantity of gluten and less 
quantity of water than in other samples. 
Analysis of Mediterranean Wheat, grown in Michigan. 

Water 11.54 

aiuten 16.24 

Starch.. 56.90 

Grlucose, dextrine, &c 10.24 

Bran 5.08 

100.00 



AND MILLWRIGHT^S ASSISTANT. 169 

Its berry is in colour a dark-reddish cast, and very 
large in size and of great length ; for family flour, it is 
superior to any other. It is also of a very hard nature, 
and requires to be ground very closely and passed 
through a very fine bolt. The Author.] 

WISCONSIN. 
Flmir from Wisconsin Wheatj manufactured there. 

Water ...13.80 

Gluten 10.85 

Starch 67.00 

Glucose and dextrine 8.83 

99.98 



GEORGIA. 
Wheat from Floyd County, Georgia. 

Water... 11.75 

Gluten 14.36 

Starch , 68.93 

Glucose and dextrine 4.96 

100.00 



[The advantages to be derived from this able and sci- 
entific analysis are of the utmost importance to the 
miller and all dealers in breadstuff's, and show, at a 
glance, the component substances, as well as the physi- 
cal nature, of this great staple of domestic consumption, 
wheat flour, not inappropriately called the ^^ staff of 
life." 

15 



170 THE AMEBIC AN MILLER, 

From the quantity of water whicli we are shown it 
contains, we must conclude on the necessity there is for 
extracting it from the grain, for its preservation. The 
use of the kiln for drying all kinds of grain before 
ground cannot be too highly recommended, both for 
the preservation of the flour or meal, as well as a pre- 
ventive from insects called weevil, which abound in all 
warm climates. 

The Author.] 



A TABLE RECKONING THE PRICE OF WHEAT, FROM 
FIFTY CENTS TO ONE DOLLAR PER BUSHEL. 

For the convenience of millers, we subjoin the follow- 
ing tables. The price will be found at the top of the 
page and in the columns headed " value of bushels'^ and 
"value of pounds;" and directly opposite the number of 
bushels and pounds in the left-hand column will be 
found the value, in dollars, cents, and mills, of 1 bushel 
or 1 pound to 100 bushels or 100 pounds. 



AND MILLWRIGHT S ASSISTANT. 



171 



^4 


Wheat at 50 cts. 


Wheat at 51 cts. 


Wheat at 52 cts. 'i Wheat at 53 cts. 


|l 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 


^a 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


i^ 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 




« cts. 


cts. m. 


$ cts. 


cts. m. 


$ cts. 


cts. m. 


$ cts. 


cts. m. 


1 


50 


8 


51 


9 


52 


9 


53 


9 


2 


1 00 


1 7 


1 02 


1 7 


1 04 


1 7 


1 06 


1 8 


3 


1 50 


2 5 


1 53 


2 6 


1 56 


2 6 


1 59 


2 7 


4 


2 00 


3 3 


2 04 


3 4 


2 08 


3 5 


2 12 


3 5 


5 


2 50 


4 2 


2 55 


4 3 


2 60 


4 3 


2 65 


4 4 


6 


3 00 


5 


3 06 


5 1 


3 12 


5 2 


3 18 


5 3 


7 


3 50 


5 8 


3 57 


6 


3 64 


6 1 


3 71 


6 2 


8 


4 00 


6 7 


4 08 


6 8 


4 16 


6 9 


4 24 


7 1 


9 


4 50 


7 5 


4 59 


7 7 


4 68 


7 8 


4 77 


8 


10 


5 00 


8 3 


5 10 


8 5 


5 20 


8 6 


5 30 


8 8 


11 


5 50 


9 2 


5 61 


9 4 


5 72 


9 5 


5 83 


9 7 


12 


6 00 


10 


6 12 


10 2 


6 24 


10 4 


6 36 


10 6 


13 


6 50 


10 8 


6 63 


11 1 


6 76 


11 3 


6 89 


11 5 


14 


7 00 


11 7 


7 14 


11 9 


7 28 


12 1 


7 42 


12 4 


15 


7 50 


12 5 


7 65 


12 8 


7 80 


13 


7 95 


13 3 


16 


8 00 


13 3 


8 16 


13 6 


8 32 


13 9 


8 48 


14 1 


17 


8 50 


14 2 


8 67 


14 5 


8 84 


14 7 


9 01 


15 


18 


9 00 


15 


9 18 


15 3 


9 36 


15 6 


9 54 


15 9 


19 


9 50 


15 8 


9 69 


16 2 


9 88 


16 5 


10 07 


16 8 


20 


10 00 


16 7 


10 20 


17 


10 40 


17 3 


10 60 


17 7 


21 


10 50 


17 5 


10 71 


17 9 


10 92 


18 2 


11 13 


18 6 


22 


11 00 


18 3 


11 22 


18 7 


11 44 


19 1 


11 66 


19 4 


23 


11 50 


19 2 


11 73 


19 6 


11 96 


19 9 


12 19 


20 3 


24 


12 00 


20 


12 24 


20 4 


12 48 


20 8 


12 72 


21 2 


25 


12 50 


20 8 


12 75 


21 3 


13 00 


21 7 


13 25 


22 1 


26 


13 00 


21 7 


13 26 


22 1 


13 52 


22 5 


13 78 


23 


27 


13 50 


22 5 


13 77 


23 


14 04 


23 4 


14 31 


23 9 


28 


14 00 


23 3 


14 28 


23 8 


14 56 


24 3 


14 84 


24 7 


29 


14 50 


24 2 


14 79 


24 7 


15 08 


25 1 


15 37 


25 6 


30 


15 00 


25 


15 30 


25 5 


15 60 


26 


15 90 


26 6 


40 


20 00 


33 3 


20 40 


34 


20 80 


34 7 


21 20 


35 3 


50 


25 00 


41 7 


25 50 


42 5 


26 00 


43 4 


26 50 


44 2 


100 


50 00 


83 4 


51 00 85 0| 


52 00 


86 6 


53 00 


88 4 



172 



THE AMERICAN MILLER 



m . 


Wheat at 54 cts. 


Wheat at 55 cts. 


Wheat at 56 cts. 


! Wheat at 57 cts. 




per bushel. 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


i-^ 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 




$ cts. 


cts. m. 


^ cts. 


cts. m. 


$ cts. 


cts. m. 


% cts. 


cts. m. 


1 


54 


9 


55 


9 


56 


9 


57 


1 


2 


1 08 


1 8 


1 10 


1 8 


1 12 


1 9 


1 14 


1 9 


3 


1 62 


2 7 


1 65 


2 8 


1 69 


2 8 


1 71 


2 9 


4 


2 16 


3 6 


2 20 


3 7 


2 25 


3 7 


2 28 


3 8 


5 


2 70 


4 5 


2 75 


4 6 


2 81 


4 7 


2 85 


4 8 


6 


3 24 


5 4 


3 30 


5 5 


3 37 


5 6 


3 42 


5 7 


7 


3 78 


6 3 


3 85 


6 4 


3 94 


6 6 


3 99 


6 7 


8 


4 32 


7 2 


4 40 


7 3 


4 50 


7 5 


4 56 


7 6 


9 


4 86 


8 1 


4 95 


8 3 


5 06 


8 4 


5 13 


8 6 


10 


5 40 


9 


5 50 


9 2 


5 62 


9 4 


5 70 


9 5 


11 


5 94 


9 9 


6 05 


10 1 


6 19 


10 3 


6 27 


10 5 


12 


6 48 


10 8 


6 60 


11 


6 75 


11 2 


6 84 


11 4 


13 


7 02 


11 7 


7 15 


11 9 


7 31 


12 2 


7 41 


12 4 


14 


7 56 


12 6 


7 70 


12 9 


7 87 


13 1 


7 98 


13 3 


15 


8 10 


13 5 


8 25 


13 8 


8 44 


14 1 


8 55 


14 3 


16 


8 64 


14 4 


8 80 


14 7 


9 00 


15 


9 12 


15 2 


17 


9 18 


15 3 


9 35 


15 6 


9 56 


15 9 


9 69 


16 2 


18 


9 72 


16 2 


^ 90 


16 5 


10 12 


16 9 


10 26 


17 1 


19 


10 26 


17 1 


10 45 


17 4 


10 69 


17 8 


10 83 


18 1 


20 


10 80 


18 


11 00 


18 3 


11 25 


18 7 


11 40 


19 


21 


11 34 


18 9 


11 55 


19 3 


11 81 


19 7 


11 97 


20 


22 


11 88 


19 8 


12 10 


20 2 


12 37 


20 6 


12 54 


20 9 


23 


12 42 


20 7 


12 65 


21 1 


12 94 


21 6 


13 11 


21 9 


24 


12 96 


21 6 


13 20 


22 


13 50 


22 5 


13 68 


22 8 


25 


13 50 


22 5 


13 75 


22 9 


14 06 


23 4 


14 25 


23 8 


26 


14 04 


23 4 


14 30 


23 8 


14 62 


24 4 


14 82 


24 7 


27 


14 58 


24 3 


14 85 


24 8 


15 19 


25 3 


15 39 


25 7 


28 


15 12 


25 2 


15 40 


25 7 


15 75 


26 2 


15 96 


26 6 


29 


15 66 


26 1 


15 95 


26 6 


16 31 


27 2 


16 53 


27 6 


30 


16 20 


27 


16 50 


27 5 


16 87 


28 1 


17 10 


28 5 


40 


21 60 


36 


22 00 


36 7 


22 50 


37 5 


22 80 


38 


50 


27 00 


45 


27 50 


45 8 


28 12 


46 9 


28 50 


47 5 


100 


54 00 


90 


55 00 


91 7 


56 24 


93 8 


57 00 


95 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 



173 



,2 m 


Wheat at 58 cts. 


Wheat at 59 cts. 


Wheat at 60 cts. 


Wheat at 61 cts. 


l| 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 


•^ P, 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


i'^ 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 




$ cts. 


cts. m. 


$ cts. 


cts. m. 


$ cts. 


cts. m. 


$ cts 


cts. m. 


1 


58 


1 


59 


1 


60 


10 


61 


1 


2 


1 16 


1 9 


1 18 


2 


1 20 


2 


1 22 


2 


3 


1 74 


2 9 


1 77 


3 


1 80 


3 


1 83 


8 


4 


2 32 


3 9 


2 36 


4 


2 40 


4 


2 44 


4 1 


5 


2 90 


4 8 


2 95 


4 9 


3 00 


5 


3 05 


5 1 


6 


3 48 


5 8 


3 54 


5 9 


3 60 


6 


3 66 


6 1 


7 


4 06 


6 8 


4 13 


6 9 


4 20 


7 


4 27 


7 1 


8 


4 64 


7 7 


4 72 


7 9 


4 80 


8 


4 88 


8 1 


9 


5 22 


8 7 


5 31 


8 9 


5 40 


9 


5 49 


9 1 


10 


5 80 


9 7 


5 90 


9 9 


6 00 


10 


6 10 


10 1 


11 


6 38 


10 6 


6 49 


10 8 


6 60 


11 


6 71 


11 2 


12 


6 96 


11 6 


7 08 


11 8 


7 20 


12 


7 32 


12 2 


13 


7 54 


12 6 


7 67 


12 8 


7 80 


13 


7 93 


13 2 


14 


8 12 


13 5 


8 26 


13 8 


8 40 


14 


8 54 


14 2 


15 


8 70 


14 5 


8 85 


14 8 


9 00 


15 


9 15 


15 2 


16 


9 28 


15 5 


9 44 


15 8 


9 60 


16 


9 76 


16 3 


17 


9 86 


16 4 


10 03 


16 7 


10 20 


17 


10 37 


17 3 


18 


10 44 


17 4 


10 62 


17 7 


10 80 


18 


10 98 


18 3 


19 


11 02 


18 4 


11 21 


18 7 


11 40 


19 


11 59 


19 3 


20 


11 60 


19 3 


11 80 


19 7 


12 00 


20 


12 20 


20 3 


21 


12 18 


20 3 


12 39 


20 7 


12 60 


21 


12 81 


21 3 


22 


12 76 


21 3 


12 98 


21 6 


13 20 


22 


13 42 


22 4 


23 


13 34 


22 2 


13 57 


22 6 


13 80 


23 


14 03 


23 4 


24 


13 92 


23 2 


14 16 


23 6 


14 40 


24 


14 64 


24 4 


25 


14 50 


24 2 


14 75 


24 6 


15 00 


25 


15 25 


25 4 


26 


15 08 


25 1 


15 34 


25 6 


15 60 


26 


15 86 


26 4 


27 


15 66 


26 1 


15 93 


26 5 


16 20 


27 


16 47 


27 4 


28 


16 24 


27 1 


16 52 


27 5 


16 80 


28 


17 08 


28 5 


29 


16 82 


28 


17 11 


28 5 


17 40 


29 


17 69 


29 5 


30 


17 40 


29 


17 70 


29 5 


18 00 


30 


18 30 


30 5 


40 


23 20 


38 7 


23 60 


39 3 


24 00 


40 


24 40 


40 7 


50 


29 00 


48 3 


29 50 


49 2 


30 00 


50 


30 50 


50 8 


100 


58 00 


96 6 


59 00 


98 3 


60 00 


100 


61 00 


101 6 



174 



THE AMERICAN MILLER, 



m . 


Wheat at 62 cts. 


Wheat at 64 cts. 


Wheat at 65 cts. 


Wheat at 66 cts. 


II 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 


•^1 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


1^ 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 




f cts. 


cts. m. 


$ cts. 


cts. m. 


$ cts. 


cts. m. 


$ cts. 


cts. m. 


1 


62 


1 


64 


1 1 


65 


1 1 


66 


1 1 


2 


1 25 


2 1 


1 28 


2 1 


1 30 


2 2 


1 32 


2 2 


3 


1 87 


3 1 


1 92 


3 2 


1 95 


3 2 


1 98 


3 3 


4 


2 50 


4 2 


2 56 


4 2 


2 60 


4 3 


2 64 


4 4 


5 


3 12 


5 2 


3 20 


5 3 


3 25 


5 4 


3 30 


5 5 


6 


3 75 


6 2 


3 84 


6 4 


3 90 


6 5 


3 96 


6 6 


7 


4 37 


7 3 


4 48 


7 4 


4 55 


7 6 


4 62 


7 7 


8 


5 00 


8 3 


5 12 


8 5 


5 20 


8 7 


5 28 


8 8 


9 


5 62 


9 4 


5 76 


9 6 


5 85 


9 8 


5 94 


9 9 


10 


6 25 


10 4 


6 40 


10 7 


6 50 


10 8 


6 60 


11 


11 


6 87 


11 5 


7 04 


11 7 


7 15 


11 9 


7 26 


12 1 


12 


7 50 


12 5 


7 68 


12 8 


7 80 


13 


7 92 


13 2 


13 


8 12 


13 5 


8 32 


13 9 


8 45 


14 1 


8 58 


14 3 


14 


8 75 


14 6 


8 96 


14 9 


9 10 


15 2 


9 24 


15 4 


15 


9 37 


15 6 


9 60 


16 


9 75 


16 3 


9 90 


16 5 


16 


10 00 


16 6 


10 24 


17 


10 40 


17 3 


10 56 


17 6 


17 


10 62 


17 7 


10 88 


18 1 


11 05 


18 4 


11 22 


18 7 


18 


11 25 


18 7 


11 52 


19 2 


11 70 


19 5 


11 88 


19 8 


19 


11 87 


19 8 


12 16 


20 3 


12 35 


20 6 


12 54 


20 9 


20 


12 50 


20 8 


12 80 


21 3 


13 00 


21 7 


13 20 


22 


21 


13 12 


21 9 


13 44 


22 4 


13 65 


22 7 


13 86 


23 1 


22 


13 75 


22 9 


14 08 


23 4 


14 30 


23 9 


14 52 


24 2 


23 


14 37 


24 


14 72 


24 5 


14 95 


24 9 


15 18 


25 3 


24 


15 00 


25 


15 36 


25 6 


15 60 


26 


15 84 


26 4 


25 


15 62 


26 


16 00 


26 6 


16 25 


27 1 


16 50 


27 5 


26 


16 25 


27 1 


16 64 


27 8 


16 90 


28 2 


17 16 


28 6 


27 


16 87 


28 1 


17 28 


28 8 


17 55 


29 3 


17 82 


29 7 


28 


17 50 


29 2 


17 92 


29 9 


18 20 


30 3 


18 48 


30 8 


29 


18 12 


30 2 


18 56 


30 9 


18 85 


31 4 


19 14 


31 9 


■ 30 


18 75 


31 2 


19 20 


32 


19 50 


32 5 


19 80 


33 


40 


25 00 


41 7 


25 60 


42 7 


26 00 


43 3 


26 40 


44 


50 


31 25 


52 1 


32 00 


53 3 


32 50 


54 2 


33 00 


55 


100 


62 50 


104 2 


64 00 


106 6 


65 00 


108 3 


66 00 


110 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 



175 



!-§ 


Wheat at 67 cts 


Wheat at 68 cts. 


Wheat at 69 cts. i I Wheat at 7n o.ta. 


n 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 


•^a 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


!l=^ 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 




^ cts 


cts. m. 


$ cts 


cts. m. 


f cts 


. cts. m. 


$ cts 


. cts. m. 


1 


67 


1 1 


68 


1 1 


6c 


1 1 


7C 


) 1 2 


2 


1 33 


2 2 


1 36 


2 3 


1 38 


2 3 


1 4C 


2 3 


3 


2 00 


3 3 


2 04 


3 4 


2 06 


3 4 


2 IC 


3 5 


4 


2 67 


4 5 


2 72 


4 5 


2 75 


4 6 


2 80 


4 7 


5 


3 33 


5 6 


3 40 


5 7 


3 44 


5 7 


3 50 


5 8 


6 


4 00 


6 7 


4 08 


6 8 


4 12 


6 9 


4 20 


7 


7 


4 67 


7 8 


4 76 


7 9 


4 81 


8 


4 90 


8 2 


8 


5 33 


8 9 


5 44 


9 1 


5 50 


9 2 


5 60 


9 3 


9 


6 00 


10 


6 12 


10 2 


6 19 


10 3 


6 30 


10 5 


10 


6 67 


11 1 


6 80 


11 3 


6 87 


11 5 


7 00 


11 7 


11 


7 33 


12 2 


7 48 


12 5 


7 56 


12 6 


7 70 


12 8 


12 


8 00 


13 3 


8 16 


13 6 


8 25 


13 7 


8 40 


14 


13 


8 67 


14 5 


8 84 


14 7 


8 94 


14 9 


9 10 


15 2 


14 


9 33 


15 5 


9 52 


15 9 


9 62 


16 


9 80 


16 3 


15 


10 00 


16 7 


10 20 


17 


10 31 


17 2 


10 50 


17 5 


16 


10 67 


17 8 


10 88 


18 1 


11 00 


18 3 


11 20 


18 7 


17 


11 33 


18 9 


11 56 


19 3 


11 69 


19 5 


11 90 


19 8 


18 


12 00 


20 


12 24 


20 4 


12 37 


20 6 


12 60 


21 


19 


12 67 


21 1 


12 92 


21 5 


13 06 


21 8 


13 30 


22 2 


20 


13 33 


22 2 


13 60 


22 7 


13 75 


22 9 


14 00 


23 3 


21 


14 00 


23 3 


14 28 


23 8 


14 44 


24 1 


14 70 


24 5 


22 


14 67 


24 5 


14 96 


24 9 


15 12 


25 2 


15 40 


25 7 


23 


15 33 


25 5 


15 64 


26 1 


15 81 


26 4 


16 10 


26 8 


24 


16 00 


26 7 


16 32 


27 2 


16 50 


27 5 


16 80 


28 


25 


16 67 


27 8 


17 00 


28 3 


17 19 


28 6 


17 50 


29 2 


26 


17 33 


28 9 


17 68 


29 5 


17 87 


29 8 


18 20 


30 3 


27 


18 00 


30 


18 36 


30 6 


18 56 


30 9 


18 90 


31 5 


28 


18 67 


31 1 


19 04 


31 7 


19 25 


32 1 


19 60 


32 7 


29 


19 33 


32 2 


19 72 


32 9 


19 94 


33 2 


20 30 


33 8 


30 


20 00 


33 3 


20 40 


34 


20 62 


34 4 


21 00 


35 


40 


26 67 


44 4 


27 20 


45 3 


27 50 


45 8 


28 00 


46 7 


50 


33 33 


55 6 


34 00 


56 6 


34 37 


57 3 


35 00 58 3 


100 


66 67 


111 1 


68 00 113 3|j 


68 75 


L14 6 


70 00 116 7 



176 




THE AMERICAN 


MILLER, 






OD 


Wheat at 71 cts. 


Wheat at 72 cts. 


Wheat at 73 cts. 


Wheat at 74 cts. 1 




per bushel. 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 


n 


Yalue 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


i^ 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 




$ cts. 


cts. m. 


« cts. 


cts. m. 


$ cts. 


cts. m. 


f cts. 


cts. m. 


1 


71 


1 2 


72 


1 2 


73 


1 2 


74 


1 2 


2 


1 42 


2 4 


1 44 


2 4 


1 46 


2 4 


1 48 


2 5 


3 


2 13 


3 5 


2 16 


3 6 


2 19 


3 6 


2 22 


3 7 


4 


2 84 


4 7 


2 88 


4 8 


2 92 


4 9 


2 96 


4 9 


5 


3 55 


6 9 


3 60 


6 


3 65 


6 1 


3 70 


6 2 


6 


4 26 


7 1 


4 32 


7 2 


4 38 


7 3 


4 44 


7 4 


7 


4 97 


8 3 


5 04 


8 4 


5 11 


8 5 


5 18 


8 6 


8 


5 68 


9 5 


5 76 


9 6 


5 84 


9 7 


5 92 


9 9 


9 


6 39 


10 6 


6 48 


10 8 


6 57 


10 9 


6 66 


11 1 


10 


7 10 


11 8 


7 20 


12 


7 30 


12 2 


7 40 


12 3 


11 


7 81 


13 


7 92 


13 2 


8 03 


13 4 


8 14 


13 6 


12 


8 52 


14 2 


8 64 


14 4 


8 76 


14 6 


8 88 


14 8 


13 


9 23 


15 4 


9 36 


15 6 


9 49 


15 8 


9 62 


16 


14 


9 94 


16 6 


10 08 


16 8 


10 22 


17 


10 36 


17 3 


15 


10 65 


17 7 


10 80 


18 


10 95 


18 2 


11 10 


18 5 


16 


11 36 


18 9 


11 52 


19 2 


11 68 


19 5 


11 84 


19 7 


17 


12 07 


20 1 


12 24 


20 4 


12 41 


20 7 


12 58 


20 9 


18 


12 78 


21 3 


12 96 


31 6 


13 14 


21 9 


13 32 


22 2 


19 


13 49 


22 5 


13 68 


22 8 


13 87 


23 1 


14 06 


23 4 


20 


14 20 


23 7 


14 40 


24 


14 60 


24 3 


14 80 


24 7 


21 


14 91 


24 8 


15 12 


25 2 


15 33 


25 5 


15 54 


25 9 


22 


15 62 


26 


15 84 


26 4 


16 06 


26 8 


16 28 


27 1 


23 


16 33 


27 2 


16 56 


27 6 


16 79 


28 0|!17 02 

29 2 11 17 76 


28 4 


24 


17 04 


28 4 


17 28 


28 8 


17 52 


29 6 


25 


17 75 


29 6 


18 OOJ 30 


18 25 


30 4 '18 50 


30 8 


26 


18 46 


30 8 


18 72 


31 2 


18 98 


31 6i!l9 24 


32 1 


27 


19 17 


31 9 


19 44 


32 4 


19 71 


32 9!! 19 98 


33 3 


28 


19 88 


33 1 


20 16 


33 6 


20 44 


34 0|I20 72 


34 5 


29 


20 59 


34 3 


20 88 


34 8 


21 17 


35 3!i21 46 


35 7 


30 


21 30 


35 5 


21 60 


36 


21 90 


36 5i!22 20 


37 


40 


28 40 


47 3 


28 80 


48 


29 20 


48 8|I29 60 


49 3 


50 


35 50 


59 2 


36 00 


60 


36 50 


60 8i 37 00 


61 7 


100 


71 00 


118 3 


72 00|l20 


73 00 


121 7i|74 00 


123 3 





















AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 



177 



"i^ 


Wheat at 75 cts. 


Wheat at Tfcicts. 


Wheat at 77 cts. | Wheat at 78 cts. 


s ^ 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 




Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


i^ 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 




$ cts. 


cts. m. 


f cts. 


cts. m. 


$ cts 


cts. m. 


S cts. 


cts. m. 


1 


75 


1 2 


76 


1 3 


77 


1 3 


78 


1 3 


2 


1 50 


2 5 


1 52 


2 5 


1 54 


2 6 


1 56 


2 6 


3 


2 25 


3 7 


2 28 


3 8 


2 31 


3 8 


2 34 


3 9 


4 


3 00 


5 


3 04 


5 1 


3 08 


5 1 


3 12 


5 2 


6 


3 75 


6 2 


3 80 


6 a 


3 85 


6 4 


3 90 


6 5 


6 


4 50 


7 5 


4 56 


7 6 


4 62 


7 7 


4 68 


7 8 


7 


5 25 


8 7 


5 32 


8 9 


5 39 


9 


5 46 


9 2 


8 


6 00 


10 


6 08 


10 1 


6 16 


10 3 


6 24 


10 4 


9 


6 75 


11 2 


6 84 


11 4 


6 93 


11 5 


7 02 


11 7 


10 


7 50 


12 5 


7 60 


12 7 


7 70 


12 8 


7 80 


13 


11 


8 25 


13 7 


8 36 


13 9 


8 47 


14 1 


8 58 


14 8 


12 


9 00 


15 


9 12 


15 2 


9 24 


15 4 


9 36 


15 6 


13 


9 75 


16 2 


9 88 


16 5 


10 01 


16 7 


10 14 


16 9 


14 


10 50 


17 5 


10 64 


17 7 


10 78 


17 9 


10 92 


18 2 


15 


11 25 


18 7 


11 40 


19 


11 55 


19 2 


11 70 


19 5 


16 


12 00 


20 


12 16 


20 3 


12 32 


20 5 


12 48 


20 8 


17 


12 75 


21 2 


12 92 


21 5 


13 09 


21 8 


13 26 


22 1 


18 


13 50 


22 5 


13 68 


22 8 


13 86 


23 1 


14 04 


23 4 


19 


14 25 


23 7 


14 44 


24 1 


14 63 


24 4 


14 82 


24 7 


20 


15 00 


25 


15 20 


25 3 


15 40 


25 7 


15 60 


26 


21 


15 75 


26 2 


15 96 


26 6 


16 17 


26 5 


16 38 


27 3 


22 


16 50 


27 5 


16 72 


27 9 


16 94 


28 2 


17 16 


28 6 


23 


17 25 


28 7 


17 48 


29 1 


17 71 


29 5 


17 94 


29 9 


24 


18 00 


30 


18 24 


30 4 


18 48 


30 8 


18 72 


31 2 


25 


18 75 


31 2 


19 00 


31 7 


19 25 


32 1 


19 50 


32 5 


26 


19 50 


32 5 


19 76 


32 9 


20 02 


33 4 


20 28 


33 8 


27 


20 25 


33 7 


20 52 


34 2 


20 79 


34 6 


21 06 


35 1 


28 


21 00 


35 


21 28 


35 5 


21 56 


35 9 


21 84 


36 4 


29 


21 75 


36 2 


22 04 


36 7 


22 33 


37 2 


22 62 


37 7 


30 


22 50 


37 5 


22 80 


38 


23 10 


38 5 


23 40 


39 


40 


30 00 


50 


30 40 


50 7 


30 80 


51 3 


31 20 


52 


50 


37 50 


62 5 


38 00 


63 3 


38 50 


64 2 


39 00 


65 


100 


75 00 


125 


76 00 


126 7 


77 00 


128 3 


78 00 


130 



178 



THE AMERICAN MILLER 



a> . 


Wheat at 79 cts. 


Wheat at 80 cts. 


Wheat at 81 cts. 


Wheat at 82 cts. 


11 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 


^1 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


i"" 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 




$ cts. 


cts. m. 


$ cts. 


cts. m. 


$ cts. 


cts. m. 


$ cts. 


cts. m. 


1 


79 


1 3 


80 


1 3 


81 


1 4 


82 


1 4 


2 


1 68 


2 6 


1 60 


2 7 


1 62 


2 7 


1 64 


2 7 


3 


2 37 


3 9 


2 40 


4 


2 43 


4 1 


2 46 


4 1 


4 


3 16 


5 3 


3 20 


5 3 


3 25 


5 4 


3 28 


5 5 


6 


3 95 


6 6 


4 00 


6 7 


4 06 


6 8 


4 10 


6 8 


6 


4 74 


7 9 


4 80 


8 


4 87 


8 1 


4 92 


8 2 


7 


5 53 


9 2 


5 60 


9 3 


5 69 


9 5 


5 74 


9 6 


8 


6 32 


10 5 


6 40 


10 7 


6 50 


10 8 


6 66 


10 9 


9 


7 11 


11 8 


7 20 


12 


7 31 


12 2 


7 38 


12 3 


10 


7 90 


13 2 


8 00 


13 3 


8 12 


13 5 


8 20 


13 7 


11 


8 69 


14 5 


8 80 


14 7 


8 94 


14 9 


9 02 


15 


12 


9 48 


15 8 


9 60 


16 


9 75 


16 2 


9 84 


16 4 


13 


10 27 


17 1 


10 40 


17 3 


10 56 


17 6 


10 66 


17 8 


14 


11 06 


18 4 


11 20 


18 7 


11 37 


18 9 


11 48 


19 1 


15 


11 85 


19 8 


12 00 


20 


12 19 


20 3 


12 30 


20 5 


16 


12 64 


21 1 


12 80 


21 3 


13 00 


21 7 


13 12 


21 9 


17 


13 43 


22 4 


13 60 


22 7 


13 81 


23 


13 94 


23 2 


18 


14 22 


23 7 


14 40 


24 


14 62 


24 3 


14 76 


24 6 


19 


15 01 


25 


15 20 


25 3 


15 44 


25 7 


15 58 


26 


20 


15 80 


26 3 


16 00 


26 7 


16 25 


27 1 


16 40 


27 3 


21 


16 59 


27 6 


16 80 


28 


17 06 


28 4 


17 22 


28 7 


22 


17 38 


29 


17 60 


29 3 


17 87 


29 8 


18 04 


30 1 


23 


18 17 


30 3 


18 40 


30 7 


18 69 


31 1 


18 86 


31 4 


24 


18 96 


31 6 


19 20 


32 


19 50 


32 5 


19 68 


32 8 


25 


19 75 


32 9 


20 00 


33 3 


20 31 


33 9 


20 60 


34 2 


26 


20 54 


34 2 


20 80 


34 7 


21 12 


35 2 


21 32 


35 5 


27 


21 33 


35 6 


21 60 


36 


21 94 


36 6 


22 14 


36 9 


28 


22 12 


36 9 


22 40 


37 3 


22 75 


37 9 


22 96 


38 3 


29 


22 91 


38 2 


23 20 


38 7 


23 66 


39 3 


23 78 


39 6 


30 


23 70 


39 5 


24 00 


40 


24 37 


40 6 


24 60 


41 


40 


31 60 


62 7 


32 00 


63 3 


32 50 


54 2 


32 80 


64 7 


50 


39 50 


65 8 


40 00 


66 6 


40 62 


67 7 


41 00 


68 3 


100 


79 00 


131 7 


80 00 


133 3 


81 25 


135 4 


82 00 


136 6 



AND MILLWRIGHT S ASSISTANT. 



179 



-Sij jWheat atS3cts. 


j Wheat at 84 cts. 


Wheat at 85 cts. 


Wheat at 86 cts. 


B 5 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 




Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


il=^ 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 




$ cts. 


cts. m. 


^ cts. 


cts. m. 


$ cts 


cts. m. 


$ cts 


cts. m. 


1 


88 


1 4 


84 


1 4 


85 


1 4 


86 


1 4 


2 


1 67 


2 8 


1 68 


2 8 


1 70 


2 8 


1 72 


2 9 


3 


2 50 


4 2 


2 52 


4 2 


2 55 


4 3 


2 58 


4 3 


4 


3 33 


5 6 


3 36 


5 6 


3 40 


5 7 


3 44 


5 7 


5 


4 17 


6 9 


4 20 


7 


4 25 


7 1 


4 30 


7 2 


6 


5 00 


8 3 


5 04 


8 4 


5 10 


8 5 


5 16 


8 6 


7 


5 83 


9 7 


5 88 


9 8 


5 95 


9 9 


6 02 


10 


8 


6 67 


11 1 


6 72 


11 2 


6 80 


11 3 


6 88 


11 5 


9 


7 50 


12 5 


7 56 


12 6 


7 65 


12 7 


7 74 


12 9 


10 


8 33 


13 9 


8 40 


14 


8 50 


14 2 


8 60 


14 3 


11 


9 17 


15 3 


9 24 


15 4 


9 35 


15 6 


9 46 


15 8 


12 


10 00 


16 7 


10 08 


16 8 


10 20 


17 


10 32 


17 2 


13 


10 83 


18 1 


10 92 


18 2 


11 05 


18 4 


11 18 


18 6 


14 


11 67 


19 4 


11 76 


19 6 


11 90 


19 8 


12 04 


20 1 


15 


12 50 


20 8 


12 60 


21 


12 75 


21 2 


12 90 


21 5 


16 


13 33 


22 2 


13 44 


22 4 


13 60 


22 7 


13 76 


22 9 


17 


14 17 


23 6 


14 28 


23 8 


14 45 


24 1 


14 62 


24 4 


18 


15 00 


25 


15 12 


25 2 


15 30 


25 5 


15 48 


25 8 


19 


15 83 


26 4 


15 96 


26 6 


16 15 


26 9 


16 34 


27 2 


20 


16 67 


27 8 


16 80 


28 


17 00 


28 3 


17 20 


28 7 


21 


17 50 


29 2 


17 64 


29 4 


17 85 


29 7 


18 06 


30 1 


22 


18 33 


30 6 


18 48 


30 8 


18 70 


31 2 


18 92 


81 5 


23 


19 17 


31 9 


19 32 


32 2 


19 55 


32 6 


19 78 


33 


24 


20 00 


33 3 


20 16 


33 6 


20 40 


34 


20 64 


34 4 


25 


20 83 


34 7 


21 00 


35 


21 25 


35 4 


21 50 


35 8 


26 


21 67 


36 1 


21 84 


36 4 


22 10 


36 8 


22 36 


37 3 


27 


22 50 


37 5 


22 68 


37 8 


22 95 


38 3 


23 22 


38 7 


28 


23 33 


38 9 


23 52 


39 2 


23 80 


39 7 


24 08 


40 1 


29 


24 17 


40 3 


24 86 


40 6 


24 65 


41 1 


24 94 


41 6 


30 


25 00 


41 7 


25 20 


42 


25 50 


42 5 


25 80 


43 


40 


33 33 


55 6 


33 60 


56 


34 00 


56 7 


34 40 


57 3 


50 


41 67 


69 4! 


42 00 


70 


42 50 


70 8 


43 00 


71 7 


100 


83 33 


138 9' 


84 00 


140 


85 00 


141 7 


86 00 


143 3 



180 



THE AMERICAN MILLER, 



















1 


TO • 


Wheat at 87^ c. I Wheat at 89 cts. 


Wheat at 90 ets. 


Wheatat91cts| 


•^a 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 1 


l| 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


i^ 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 




% cts. 


cts. m. 


55 ets. 


cts. m. 


$ cts. 


cts. m. 


$ cts. 


cts. m. 


1 


87 


1 4 


89 


1 5 


90 


1 5 


91 


1 5 


2 


1 75 


2 9 


1 78 


3 


1 80 


3 


1 82 


3 1 


3 


2 62 


4 4 


2 67 


4 4 


2 70 


45 


2 73 


4 5 


4 


3 50 


5 8 


3 56 


5 9 


3 60 


6 


3 64 


6 1 


5 


4 37 


7 3 


4 45 


7 4 


4 50 


7 5 


4 55 


7 6 


6 


5 25 


8 7 


5 34 


8 9 


5 40 


9 


5 46 


9 1 


7 


6 12 


10 2 


6 23 


10 4 


6 30 


10 5 


6 37 


10 6 


8 


7 00 


11 7 


7 12 


11 9 


7 20 


12 


7 28 


12 1 


9 


7 87 


13 1 


8 01 


13 3 


8 10 


13 5 


8 19 


13 6 


10 


8 75 


14 6 


8 90 


14 8 


9 00 


15 


9 10 


15 2 


11 


9 62 


16 


9 79 


16 3 


9 90 


16 5 


10 01 


16 7 


12 


]0 50 


16 5 


10 68 


17 8 


10 80 


18 


10 92 


18 2 


13 


11 37 


18 9 


11 57 


19 3 


11 70 


19 6 


11 83 


19 7 


14 


12 25 


20 4 


12 46 


20 8 


12 60 


21 


12 74 


21 2 


15 


13 12 


21 9 


13 35 


22 2 


13 50 


22 5 


13 65 


22 7 


16 


14 00 


23 3 


14 24 


23 7 


14 40 


24 


14 56 


24 3 


17 


14 87 


24 8 


15 13 


25 2 


15 30 


25 5 


15 47 


25 8 


18 


15 75 


26 2 


16 02 


26 7 


16 20 


27 


16 38 


27 3 


19 


16 62 


27 7 


16 91 


28 2 


17 10 


28 5 


17 29 


28 8 


20 


17 50 


29 2 


17 80 


29 7 


18 00 


30 


18 20 


30 3 


21 


18 37 


30 6 


18 69 


31 1 


18 90 


31 5 


19 11 


31 8 


22 


19 25 


32 1 


19 58 


32 5 


19 80 


33 


20 02 


33 4 


23 


20 12 


33 5 


20 47 


34 1 


20 70 


34 5 


20 93 


34 9 


24 


21 00 


35 


21 36 


35 6 


21 60 


36 


21 84 


36 4 


25 


21 87 


36 4 


22 25 


37 1 


22 50 


37 5 


22 75 


37 9 


26 


22 75 


37 9 


23 14 


38 6 


23 40 


39 


23 66 


39 4 


27 


23 62 


39 4 


24 03 


40 


24 30 


40 5 


24 57 


40 9 


28 


24 50 


40 8 


24 92 


41 5 


25 20 


42 


25 48 


42 5 


29 


25 37 


42 3 


25 81 


43 


26 10 


43 5 


26 39 


44 


30 


26 25 


43 7 


26 70 


44 5 


27 00 


45 


27 30 


45 5 


40 


35 00 


58 3 


35 60 


59 


36 00 


60 


36 40 


60 7 


50 


43 75 


72 9 


44 50 


74 2 


45 00 


75 


45 50 


75 8 


100 


87 50 


145 8 


89 00 


148 3 


90 001150 


91 00 


151 7 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 



181 



^4 

II 


Wheat at 92 cts, 
per bushel. 


Wheat at 93 cts. 
per bushel. 


Wheat at 94 cts 
per bushel. 


Wheat at 95 cts. 
per bushel. 


Value 
bush. 


Value 
lbs. 


Value 
bush. 


Value 
lbs. 


Value 
bush. 


Value 
lbs. 


Value 
bush. 


Value 
lbs. 




f cts 


cts. m. 


$ cts 


cts. m. 


$ cts 


. cts. m. 


.$ cts 


• 1 cts. m. 


1 


92 


1 5 


93 


1 5 


9^ 


[ 1 6 


95I 1 6 


2 


1 84 


3 1 


1 86 


3 1 


1 87 


3 1 


1 9C 


) 3 2 


3 


2 76 


4 6 


2 79 


4 6 


2 81 


4 7 


2 8£ 


4 7 


4 


3 68 


6 1 


3 72 


6 2 


3 75 


6 2 


3 8C 


6 3 


5 


4 60 


7 7 


4 65 


7 8 


4 69 


7 8 


4 75 


7 9 


6 


5 52 


9 2 


5 58 


9 3 


5 62 


9 4 


5 70 


9 5 


7 


6 44 


10 7 


6 51 


10 8 


6 56 


10 9 


6 65 


11 1 


8 


7 36 


12 3 


7 44 


12 4 


7 50 


12 5 


7 60 


12 7 


9 


8 28 


13 8 


8 37 


13 9 


8 44 


14 1 


8 55 


14 3 


10 


9 20 


15 3 


9 30 


15 5 


9 37 


15 6 


9 50 


15 8 


11 


10 12 


16 9 


10 23 


17 1 


10 31 


17 2 


10 45 


17 4 


12 


11 04 


18 4 


11 16 


18 6 


11 25 


18 7 


11 40 


19 


13 


11 96 


19 9 


12 09 


20 1 


12 19 


20 3 


12 35 


20 6 


14 


12 88 


21 5 


13 02 


21 7 


13 12 


21 9 


13 30 


22' 2 


15 


13 80 


23 


13 95 


23 3 


14 06 


23 4 


14 25 


23 7 


16 


14 72 


24 5 


14 88 


24 8 


15 00 


25 


15 20 


25 3 


17 


15 64 


26 1 


15 81 


26 3 


15 94 


26 6 


16 15 


26 9 


18 


16 56 


27 6 


16 74 


27 9 


16 87 


28 1 


17 10 


28 5 


19 


17 48 


29 1 


17 67 


29 4 


17 81 


29 7 


18 05 


30 1 


20 


18 40 


30 7 


18 60 


31 


18 75 


31 2 


19 00 


31 7 


21 


19 32 


32 2 


19 53 


32 6 


19 69 


32 8 


19 95 


33 2 


22 


20 24 


33 7 


20 46 


34 1 


20 62 


34 4 


20 90 


34 8 


23 


21 16 


35 3 


21 39 


35 6 


21 56 


35 a 


21 85 


36 4 


24 


22 08 


36 8 


22 32 


37 2 


22 50 


37 5 


22 80 


38 


25 


23 00 


38 3 


23 25 


38 8 


23 44 


39 1 


23 75 


39 6 


26 


23 92 


39 9 


24 18 


40 3 


24 37 


40 6 


24 70 


41 2 


27 


24 84 


41 4 


25 11 


41 8 


25 31 


42 2 


25 65 


42 7 


28 


25 76 


42 9 


26 04 


43 4 


26 25 


43 7 


26 60 


44 3 


29 


26 68 


44 5 


26 97 


44 9 


27 19 


45 3 


27 55 


45 9 


30 


27 60 


46 


27 90 


46 5 


28 12 


46 9 


28 50 


47 5 


40 


36 80 


61 3 


37 20 


62 


37 50 


62 6 


38 00 


63 3 


50 


46 00 


76 7 


46 50 


77 5 


46 87 


78 1 


47 50 


79 2 


100 


92 00 


153 3 


93 00 


165 


93 75 


156 2 1 


95 00 158 3 



182 



THE AMERICAN MILLER 



.22 rA 


Wheat at 96 cts. 


Wheat at 97 cts. 


Wheat at 98 cts. 


Wheat at 99 cts. 


l| 


per bvishel. 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 


per bushel. 


^1 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


Value 


1^ 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 


bush. 


lbs. 




$ cts. 


cts. m. 


% cts. 


cts. m. 


$ cts. 


cts. m. 


$; cts. 


cts. m. 


1 


96 


1 6 


97 


1 6 


98 


1 6 


99 


1 6 


2 


1 92 


3 2 


1 94 


3 2 


1 96 


3 3 


1 98 


3 3 


3 


2 88 


4 8 


2 91 


4 8 


2 94 


4 9 


2 97 


4 9 


4 


3 84 


6 4 


3 88 


6 5 


3 92 


6 5 


3 96 


6 6 


5 


4 80 


8 


4 85 


8 1 


4 90 


8 2 


4 95 


8 2 


6 


5 76 


9 6 


5 82 


9 7 


5 88 


9 8 


5 94 


9 9 


7 


6 72 


11 2 


6 79 


11 3 


6 86 


11 4 


6 93 


11 5 


8 


7 68 


12 8 


7 76 


12 9 


7 84 


13 1 


7 92 


13 2 


9 


8 64 


14 4 


8 73 


14 5 


8 82 


14 7 


8 91 


14 8 


10 


9 60 


16 


9 70 


16 2 


9 80 


16 3 


9 90 


16 5 


11 


10 56 


17 6 


10 67 


17 8 


10 78 


17 9 


10 89 


18 1 


12 


11 52 


19 2 


11 64 


19 4 


11 76 


19 6 


11 88 


19 8 


13 


12 48 


20 8 


12 61 


21 


12 74 


21 2 


12 87 


21 4 


14 


13 44 


22 4 


13 58 


22 6 


13 72 


22 9 


13 86 


23 1 


15 


14 40 


24 


14 55 


24 2 


14 70 


24 5 


14 85 


24 7 


16 


15 36 


25 6 


15 52 


25 9 


15 68 


26 1 


15 84 


26 4 


17 


16 32 


27 2 


16 49 


27 5 


16 66 


27 8 


16 83 


28 


18 


17 28 


28 8 


17 46 


29 1 


17 64 


29 4 


17 82 


29 7 


19- 


18 24 


30 4 


18 43 


30 7 


18 62 


31 


18 81 


31 3 


20 


19 20 


32 


19 40 


32 3 


19 60 


32 7 


19 80 


33 


21 


20 16 


33 6 


20 37 


33 9 


20 58 


34 3 


20 79 


34 6 


22 


21 12 


35 2 


21 34 


35 6 


21 56 


35 9 


21 78 


36 3 


23 


22 08 


36 8 


22 31 


37 2 


22 54 


37 6 


22 77 


37 9 


24 


23 04 


38 4 


23 28 


38 8 


23 52 


39 2 


23 76 


39 6 


25 


24 00 


40 


24 25 


40 4 


24 50 


40 8 


24 75 


41 3 


26 


24 96 


41 6 


25 22 


42 


25 48 


42 5 


25 74 


42 9 


27 


25 92 


43 2 


26 19 


43 6 


26 46 


44 1 


26 73 


44 5 


28 


26 88 


44 8 


27 16 


45 3 


27 44 


45 7 


27 72 


46 2 


29 


27 84 


46 4 


28 13 


46 9 


28 42 


47 4 


28 71 


47 8 


30 


28 80 


48 


29 10 


48 5 


29 40 


49 


29 70 


49 5 


40 


38 40 


64 


38 80 


64 7 


39 20 


65 3 


39 60 


66 


50 


48 00 


80 


48 50 


80 8 


49 00 


81 7 


49 50 


82 5 


100 


96 00 


160 


97 00 


161 7 


98 00 


163 3 


99 00 


165 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 183 



STEAM AS APPLIED FOR PROPELLING MILLS. 

Steam, as a power for milling purposes, in locations 
where fuel can be easily obtained, is quite as good as 
water, when constructed and arranged properly. The 
old method of building steam-mills with single engines 
is always attended with a good deal of difficulty, re- 
quiring very nice calculation in proportioning the motion 
of the machinery, so as to do away with back -lashing, 
which is impossible, unless the velocity of the balance- 
wheel exceed that of the stone ; which should be borne 
in mind by all millwrights who undertake to build mills 
with single engines. But modern improvement in the 
science of practical mechanics has improved the steam 
mill, by the application of two engines instead of one. 
The engines are attached to the main shaft, working at 
right angles, which gives a very even, steady power, and 
dispenses with the use of fly-wheels entirely. 

The following sized engines may be used in mills to 
drive two run of stones, viz. : 

Size of cylinders, 10 inches bore, — length of stroke, 
2 feet; to be supplied with steam from two boilers, 
double flues, 40 inches in diameter, 30 feet long. 

Boilers and engines of that size will drive two run of 
stones, with all necessary machinery for flouring and 
custom work. And a mill of that size, when properly 
constructed, with five cords of wood per twenty-four 
hours, will put up from one hundred to one hundred and 
thirty barrels of flour. 



184 



ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE SAW-MILL, WITH A 
TABLE FOR MEASURING SAW-LOGS. 

The construction of the saw-mill is something that 
requires improvement, even in this day of mechanical 
progress. The old method of building saw-mills, is to 
attach the water-wheel and saw to the same shaft. That 
we consider wrong, for the following reasons: The power 
of the water is so great, it requires every part of all the 
connecting machinery to be bound very secure, which 
causes a stiffness which very materially reduces the ac- 
tual power, when used in connection with a crank. As 
the power of the water is the same, both off and on the 
centre, producing an irregularity of motion, the momen- 
tum of which racks the frame of the mill, and occasions 
a great deal of trouble and time in extra repairs. To 
make this subject more plain, the weight of water, saw- 
sash, pitman, and crank cannot be equalized, as the 
length of the crank being the distance from the centre, 
produces that irregularity of motion, which pertains to 
all crank motions. Saw-mills of this description are 
generally driven by horizontal water-wheels, and are sim- 
ple in their construction, but are less powerful than 
those mills geared by perpendicular water-wheels as 
follows : 

The first great advantage in gearing saw-mills with 
perpendicular water-wheels, is, you use the water on a 
wheel working on the principle of the lever of the second 
kind, (see, "Mechanics,'' page 16,) the power being 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 185 

3 to 1, and the saw being driven bj a belt^ takes away 
all that strain which destroys and racks the frame, as all 
single geared mills. Also, the gig-wheel is done away, 
^; bj ^ ga^ge on the main gate, the carriage may be 
worked with ease, and a good deal of power saved thereby. 

For a water power of seven feet head, the following 
described rules may be used, and a good strong mill 
obtained :— Size of the frame, 27 by 40 — size of water- 
wheel, 5 feet in diameter, driving a horizontal shaft, 
with bevel gearing 2 inches, i pitch, driver 64 cogs, 
leader 32 — size of driving-drum on said shaft, 8 feet in 
diameter, which drives the crank shaft by a pully 2 feet 
in diameter,— this pully should be made about 2 feet 
wide, to allow room for the belt which drives the carriage 
by a drum of 5 feet in diameter. The carriage is 
worked to the saw by an eccentric rod attached from the 
crank shaft which runs up to the feed hand, and joins 
by an elbow. A fly-wheel six feet in diameter is re- 
quired, and bored for the crank at any required length, 
from 12 to 30 inches. 

This is the best possible mode of constructing the 
saw-mill, and, where a muley saw is used, is one of the 
best kind of mills. The size of the belting should be, 
when made of leather, 12 inches wide, of good band 
leather doubled, sewed with horse-hide dressed purpose- 
ly, stitched three times. This belt; if kept dry, will last 
for many years. 

The belting should be made of leather, 12 or 14 
inches wide, and for the information of those concerned 
in mills, and requiring the use of bands, I should re- 



186 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

commend them to William Kumbel, the manufacturer 
and patentee of Kumbel's patent macLine-stretclied 
leather banding, who manufactures the same at No. 
33 Ferry street, New York. He stretches them very 
thoroughly by machinery, and rivets them together, 
and makes them run perfectly straight ; and also war- 
rants them to give perfect satisfaction to the purchaser. 
He may at all times be addressed by mail, and will 
send prices of any or all the different sizes which may 
be wanted, and can be forwarded by express. He is a 
man in whom full confidence can be placed, as he war- 
rants, and will take back any work that does not give 
entire satisfaction. All millers, as well as others en- 
gaged in manufacturing, can attest to the importance 
of having bands properly made ; and I have myself re- 
cently visited some of the largest establishments in 
New York, and, among others, the extensive, and, I 
might say, model flouring-mill, of the Messrs. Hecker 
& Brothers, where I saw some 3000 feet of this belting 
in operation. For driving both the stone and elevators, 
its performance was most perfect. I should have no- 
ticed that the manufacturer sizes and joints by cement, 
before riveting. 



AND MILLWRIGHT'S ASSISTANT. 



187 



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188 



THE AMERICAN MILLER, 



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AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 189 



HAERISON'S PATENT MILL. 

This engraving gives a correct view of a mill patented 
by E. Harrison, of New Haven, Connecticut, and made 
to suit all orders, for sizes of stone from 18 to 30 inches 
in diameter. The frame, hoppers, and curbs are of cast 
iron, and so constructed as to admit of being taken 
apart for dressing the stone, with the greatest facility. 
They can be sent to order, packed in a strong case, the 
weight being much less than stone the ordinary size; 
and will grind from 5 bushels to 10, per hour, with great 
ease. For the use of all those millers using Mr. D. P. 
BonnelFs celebrated process of flouring, those mills of 
Mr. Harrison's are peculiarly adapted, being what Mr. 
Bonnell calls his auxiliary mill. 

I have examined this patent, at the warehouse of 



190 THE AMERICAN MLLER, 

H. E. Warren, No. 44 Cortland street, .New York, 
where they are kept for sale ; and all information re- 
specting them will be furnished by applying to this ad- 
dress. They are also well calculated for custom grind- 
ing, being much cheaper for grist-mills than large 
stone on light streams. Mr. Warren sells two kinds 
of these patent mills; the other being conical in 
shape. These mills are constructed so that a current 
of air is continually passing though the stone while run- 
ning — a matter that adds very much to their importance. 
The price of the small size is $100; and the large, of 
30 inch stone, $200. 



FRENCH BURR MILL-STONE MANUFAC- 
TORIES. 



LAFAYETTE BURR MILL MANUFACTORY, 

No. 240 Washington street, New York. 

I HAVE personally examined the mill -stones made by 
this establishment, and found them very much to my 
liking. They are well made, from choice selected 
blocks, and are well worthy the patronage of all mil- 
lers. The bolting cloths kept by this establishment, 
are of the best Grerman brands, being the old anchor 
stamp, which is in all cases preferable to the new stock 
of cloths for flouring mills. This establishment does 
not work up any of the burr stone, called new stock, 
unless specially ordered by millers ; a fact highly credit- 



AND 31ILLWRIGHT's ASSISTANT. 191 

able to them as manufacturers of mill-stone. I never 
did, nor can I recommend this kind of stone to any 
miller, it being much inferior to the old stock. It is a 
matter of the greatest importance that millers should 
know where these different articles can be obtained of 
the best qualities. 




THE TROY FRENCH BURR MILL-STONE MANUFAC- 
TORY. 

No. 382 River street, Troy, N. Y. 
Ethan A. Crandall, Proprietor. 

The central position of this manufactory gives mil- 
lers in all parts of the United States and Canadas an 
opportunity of dealing on the most favourable terms, 
for mill-stones and bolting cloths ; it being one of the 
oldest mill-stone establishments in the State, and exten- 
sively engaged in the trade; importing all his own 
stock from France, which gives millers a choice of select- 



192 



THE AMERICAN MILLER, 



ing mill-stones, not to be surpassed in the Union. This 
establishment is daily engaged in the manufacture of 
mill-stones from stock of both the old and new quar- 
Tiesj of French burr, with improved cast-iron balancing 
hoxes, &G., in runners, so that millers can be easily suited 
with any description of mill-stones required, at un- 
usually low prices. I have examined his stock of mill- 
stones on hand, and think they cannot be excelled for 
quality and workmanship; the seams or joints of the 
stone showing a great deal of mechanical skill, in their 
being close, even, and well fitted. His stock of Dutch 
old and new anchor bolting cloths consists of every 
description of best quality usually wanted for both flour- 
ing and grist-mills. He promptly attends to all orders 
in his line, by mail or otherwise ; and sends bolting cloth, 
by express, to any part of the United States or Canadas, 
accompanied with a warranty of quality, and instruc- 
tions as to manner of covering reels, when required. 



UTICA FRENCH BURR MILL-STONE MANUFACTORY. 

Hart & Munson, successors to M. Hart and Son, in 
the above establishment, are now prepared to furnish 
French burr mill-stones of the best quality and greatly 
improved workmanship and finish; together with the 
best quality bolting cloths, screen wire, hoisting screws, 
lighter screws, dansells, and mill picks. 

Mr. Munson, who is a practical miller and mill- 
wright, has recently invented and patented a machino, 




munson's patent machine for testing the accuracy of the 
balance of millstones. 



Plate 5,— p. 192. 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 193 

on which the mill-stone, after it is blocked up, is sus- 
pended upon its centre, where it is balanced in the 
course of filling up and finishing, instead of filling up 
the same without the means of testing the accuracy of 
its balance, leaving that to be done by the millwright, 
(as is usually the case,) in hanging the stone for actual 
use in the mill. 

In order that the great superiority of mill-stones 
finished in this way over all others, may be seen at once, 
a brief description of the machine and manner of finish- 
ing, is herewith given. 

An important part of the machine is a heavy circular 
face plate, which is hung and balanced on a pivot or 
spindle. This plate has a flange near the outer edge on 
the under side, which rests on four friction rollers, so 
that when put in motion, it runs perfectly smooth and 
true. Around the opening or eye in the centre of th« 
plate, there is raised a flange which receives a hollow 
cone for forming the eye of the stone. This cone stands 
perfectly true with the plate, which plate is raised or 
lowered with a lighter screw. The cut is a representa- 
tion of the machine, with a mill-stone upon it, in a 
finished state. 

The manner of finishing a stone is by placing it upon 
the plate and centre it. The skirt is then coated with 
plaster and turned off perfectly true. The band is then 
put on hot. This band is wide, (with iron tubes fitted 
in for the pin holes,) and extends above the edge of the 
stone in its unfinished state, leaving a vacancy between 
the eye and the band, which is to be filled up in the 

17 



I 



194 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

finishing. It is in this filling up and finishing of the 
stone that the balancing of it is performed. The means 
heing here afforded, as described, of raising the stone 
free from the friction rollers, and holding it suspended on 
the spindle or cock head, and in that condition observing 
its balance when at rest, or by application of motive 
power, communicating to the stone a swift motion, and 
in that condition, by observing its balance, it can very 
accurately be ascertained which side of the stone pre- 
ponderates, and where to apply the heaviest filling. 

This test is strictly observed until the necessary thick- 
ness is obtained. When the filling is completed, a coat 
of plaster is put on and the top is nicely turned ofi", and 
the stone is complete. During the whole process, the 
means are afi'orded of testing its balance both at rest 
and in motion, so that when the process of construction 
is complete, and the mill-stone finished, it is not only 
constructed favourably to the perfection of the stone, 
but the stone is also thoroughly balanced. 

Their bed stones are also finished on the machine, 
consequently are of equal thickness, which saves the 
necessity of scribing down or wedging up. 

IMPROVED PATENT BALANCE. 

The mill-stone, as finished upon the above described 
machine, is accurately balanced; but as the materials 
used in forming the stone are put together in a moist 
state, and the moisture not being equally distributed 
throughout all parts of the stone^ the subsequent season- 




PATENT BALANCE. 



Plate 6.— p. 194. 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 195 

ing and drying of the stone may possibly, in some slight 
degree, destroy that balance. The nature of the im- 
proved patent balance is to provide a ready and conve- 
nient mode of re-adjusting the balance of the stone 
whenever it shall become deranged from this or any 
other cause. To do this, after the stone is blocked up. 
and banded, as shown in the cut, four cast-iron boxes 
are placed between the band and the eye of the stone, 
on each of its four sides. These boxes extend from the 
band to the eye of the stone. In each box is a weight 
and a screw passing through it. The end of the screw 
presenting itself at the key hole in the band, is squared 
and a key is fitted to it, so that by the use of this key, 
turning the screw to the right or left, the weight, which 
slides freely within the box, is moved nearer to the 
centre of the stone or farther from it, at pleasure, and 
in this way increasing or diminishing the preponder- 
ance of the stone at this point. When one weight is 
pressed nearer to the centre, the opposite one may be 
drawn out ', thus producing a two-fold effect in the re- 
lative weight of the two opposite sides of the stone, 
and as the inequality can rarely be otherwise than tri- 
fling after the stone has been accurately balanced upon 
the machine, a small weight of four or five pounds will 
be sufficient. The boxes with their weights and screws 
properly adjusted, the filling of the stone is then put on 
covering these boxes, and the stone then balanced, 
turned off, and completed as described above. The 
means being thus provided of correcting any inaccuracy 
in its balance which may subsequently accrue from dry- 



196 

ing; or from any other cause. The improved patent 
balance will be put into stones only when ordered, and 
on which an extra charge will be made. 

Having visited this extensive manufactory, I feel 
satisfied in saying that I there experienced great plea- 
sure, as well as received practical information, in the 
mechanical construction of the French burr mill-stone, 
which is entirely new. By reference to the engravings, 
the miller discovers new principles, which are adopted for 
the purpose of making a mill-stone work perfect. This 
is an entirely original invention of one of this firm j and 
I think I can safely attest that no other mill-stone esta- 
blishment in the United States turns out mill-stones 
of a finer finish and make than these. Having visited 
several of the largest establishments in the city of New 
York and elsewhere, for the purpose of giving millers 
all the information pertaining to the business, in this 
edition of my work, I now present to them this esta- 
blishment, as a model French burr and mill furnishing 
concern, highly worthy of the patronage of all engaged 
in our business. 



ROCHESTER FRENCH BURR MILL-STONE ESTA- 
BLISHMENT. 

John F. Bush, Proprietor. 

Having visited Rochester, New York, for the pur- 
pose of examining the latest improvements in mill ma- 
chinery, I found this establishment well supplied with 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 197 

all kinds of materials, such as mill-stones of all sizes, 
together with bolting cloths of all numbers, screen 
wires of various numbers, smut machines, proof staffs, 
bran dusters, and every other kind of miller's merchan- 
dise, of good quality. I was much pleased in being in- 
formed of the manner of preparing that useful machine 
for the miller, the proof staff. It is made and proved 
on the most scientific principle, being faced perfectly 
true previous to casing and sending them away. This 
is the only firm of our acquaintance where the proof 
staff is properly made. 



REMARKS ON A NEW DESCRIPTION OF BOLTING 
MATERIAL FOR GRIST MILLS. 

Tins is a late invention of using wire for bolting 
cloths for mills, and one that gives millers general 
satisfaction, where custom or grist grinding is the princi- 
pal use of the same. For the latter kind of mills, wire 
is preferable to cloth, as there is considerable saving in the 
difference of the cost of the bolts. Where wire is used, 
the reels need not be so long by one-third, and for bolt- 
ing meal made from damp wheat, it is far preferable 
to cloth. Wire is now manufactured to suit all num- 
bers and sizes, ranging from No. 2 to No. 60. Iron 
wire cloth, and brass, from No. 2 to No. 70. No. 60 
iron wire is fine enough for superfine flour, and 30 for 
corn meal. All descriptions of wire can be obtained at 
the manufactory of Sterling Smith, No. 29 Fulton street, 

17* 



198 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

New York, wliere all orders can be forwarded by express, 
and a superior article of cloth, of either kind of metal, 
sent. The prices vary from 12 J cents per square foot, 
for the coarsest numbers iron, to 45 cents, the finest. 
Brass, from 30 cents to 80, for No. 70, the finest. 



BROWN'S WHEAT SCALE, WITH HOPPER. 

The same as those used by the Western Mil]s for weighing 
Grain. 

In compiling this edition of my work, I became con- 
vinced of the necessity of pointing to the subject of 
honest and accurate means of weighing both wheat and 
flour. As millers frequently have to suffer no small 
share of imputation in consequence of being imposed 
upon by venders of fraudulent scales, I wish to call 
their attention to the fact that they should be very care- 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 19^ 

ful in ascertaining that the scales they wish to use are 
made properly; which may be done by examining 
whether the bearing points of the scale are made of 
cast steel, as they should be, instead of being cast iron, 
roughly fitted, in a cheap style, as some of the scales of 
this description now ofiered for sale are. I have taken 
a good deal of pains to personally examine various 
scales made by different manufacturers, and have found 
none that suited my conceptions of what constitutes a 
good scale, as that at the manufactory of J. L. Brown, 
No. 234 Water street, New York, as regards their 
mathematical construction, convenience in weighing, and 
neatness in appearance. I found them made of the best 
cast steel for bearings, and carefully adjusted to the 
standard weight of the United States ; and they are used 
in all the government departments. 



BROWN'S PATENT SMUT MACHINE. 

This machine was invented by Mr. Brown, a practi- 
cal miller, of extensive knowledge in milling business 
generally. He asserts the machine to clean from 10 
to 100 bushels per hour, by different applications of 
speed or motion. In its mechanical construction, it 
differs from all other smut machines of my knowledge. 
I made an examination of the working of it at the 
Kenwood flouring mill, where I found it doing a first-rate 
business, with a motion of 400 revolutions per minute, 



200 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

cleaning for four run of stones, the size being 30 
inches in diameter, and 12 inches deep. Mr. Brown 
is employed at this mill, as head miller, where he can 
be addressed by all those in want of his improvement : it 
is in the county of Albany, New York, where all in- 
formation relative to the use of the machine should be 
addressed. 



BRAN DUSTERS AND SEPARATORS COMBII^ED. 

The undersigned, being a practical miller, and for three 
years past engaged in putting into mills bran dusters, is 
enabled from experience to say that no flouring mill 
should be without this valuable machine. 

The saving by running the bran, shorts, and ship- 
stuffs through the duster, after the bolts usually in 
mills have taken out all the flour they are capable of, is, 
in the best arranged mills, from one to two barrels out 
of the offal from every 100 barrels— and in most mills 
is from two to five barrels. The enormous loss millers 
sustain who do not dust their offal, amounts, in this 
State, to hundreds of thousands of dollars. In Oswego 
alone, where some 500,000 barrels of flour are turned 
out yearly, more than ten thousand barrels of flour go 
off in the offal, without increasing the offal, and is, in 
fact, throwing away fifty thousand dollars. This bold 
assertion the undersigned can demonstrate to the satis- 
faction of any miller who will submit the cleanest of 



AND millwright's assistant. 201 

his bran, shorts, and shipstuffs, to actual trial. Dust- 
ing the offal and returning the flour taken out to the 
hopper-boy, does not speck or injure the flour in the 
least — this is well known to all millers who have intro- 
duced the dusters. 

Machines, capable of dusting the offal from any 
quantity, up to 600 barrels per day, are made in a first 
rate manner — not liable to get out of order, and easily 
repaired — either to separate the bran, shorts, and ship- 
stuffs, or not, at L. A. Spalding's machine shop and 
foundry, in Lockport, New York, at the following 
prices : — 

Horizontal machines, with or without separators, 
boxed ready to run, about 200 revolutions per minute, 
requiring but little power — 

No. 1, $100, suitable for a mill turning out 100 barrels per day. 
No. 2, 150, " « " 200 " « 

No. 3, 200, " " « 600 « « 

Every flouring mill in Lockport has this machine in 
use, and certificates, verifying what is said herein, could 
be obtained, if necessary, from the most respectable and 
experienced millers throughout Western New York. 

Persons wishing machines may address L. A. Spald- 
ing, Lockport, Niagara county, New York, (post-paid,) or 
the subscriber, who will, if required, attend personally 
in setting them in operation. 

F. A. Spalding, Lockport, New York. 

N. B. — Directions for setting up will be attached to 
each machine. 



202 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

BONNELL'S IMPROVED PROCESS OF FLOURING. 

Patented August 14, 1849. 

Whatever adds to or improves the quality of any 
thing which is useful to man, is valuable ; and what- 
ever claims to do so, is worthy of attention and exami- 
nation, particularly when the proposed improvement is 
directed to the main article of the world's product, 
breadstuffs. 

To the people of the United States, who have annu- 
ally about 8,000,000 barrels of surplus flour, which 
seeks the market of the world, and which must come 
in competition with the produce of the great wheat- 
growing countries of Russia and Grermany, any im- 
provement in machinery or in the process of produc- 
tion, by which American flour can be increased in quan- 
tity or improved in quality, without adding to the labour 
or expense of production, must be of immense benefit. 
The cost of labour, in the wheat-growing countries of 
Europe, (aside from that performed by Russian serfs,) 
is from 11 to 15 cents per day, without board ; and, 
from the government reports of that country, it will be 
seen that Russia alone, " after a good harvest, is in con- 
dition to export about 30,000,000 of chetwerts of grain,'' 
equal to about 180,000,000 of bushels of grain; and 
supposing the cost of transportation equal, as the Ameri- 
can producer pays some seven or eight times as much 
for labour, it is evident he must abandon the foreign 
market, unless he can, by the richness of his soil, his 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 203 

superior husbandry, and his mechanical skill, combined, 
produce as cheaply as his competitors. The improve- 
ments in the manufacture of flour have, for the last 15 
or 20 years, been so great, that many persons engaged 
in the business suppose that further improvements can- 
not be made. It is well known, that, but a few years 
ago, it required, with the utmost economy, 5 good 
bushels of wheat to make a barrel of superfine flour, 
and now it is produced, of equally good, or better 
quality, out of 4 bushels and 15 to 25 pounds; but 
whatever may be their opinions, and whatever may be 
the quantity now used, it is no longer a conjecture, but 
an established fact, that there is a barrel of excellent 
superfine flour in 210 pounds of good, dry wheat, 
weighing 60 pounds to the bushel: i. e. 3 J bushels. 
There is, then, a loss somewhere, of 45 to 55 pounds 
on every barrel of superfine flour ; and this loss is mainly 
from the best and most nutritious portion of the grain, 
the gluten. This fact is established by the following 
experiments, extracted from the report of Dr. Beck to 
the Commissioner of Patents. (See Patent Office Re- 
port for 1848.) 



204 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

ANALYSIS OF WHEAT FLOUR. 
New Jersey Flour. 
Example 1. — Sample of wheat flour purchased at 
New Brunswick : 

Water 12.75 

Gluten 10.90 

Starch 70.20 

Glucose; Dextrine, &c 6.15 

100.00 

New York Flour. 
Example 4.— Wheat flour, branded "Excelsior," 
manufactured expressly for Messrs. Lay & Craft, Albany, 
New York, from extra pure Genesee wheat, Rochester, 
New York. 

Water •• 12.40 

Gluten 11-46 

Starch 70.20 

Glucose, Dextrine, &c 5.20 

99.26 
These two examples are about the medium. There 
were 23 analyses made by Dr. Beck, from samples fur- 
nished by the different States, from which the average 
yield of gluten was 11.18 per cent, of the whole 
flour. 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 205 

The proportion of gluten in wlieat is generally about 
double that contained in these samples oi flour. Accord- 
ing to Davy's Agricultural Chemistry, English Middlesex 
wheat contained 19.00 per cent. ; Sicilian wheat, 23.90 ; 
Poland, 20.00, and North American, 22.50 per cent. The 
other half, therefore, of this most precious property of the 
grain goes into the bran or feeds, and is comparatively 
lost. On this point. Dr. Beck says: ''Although the 
whiteness of the bread is considered as a mark of its 
goodness, it has been ascertained by Professor Johnston 
that fine flour contains a less proportion of nutritive 
matter than the whole meal. The correctness of this 
view has been confirmed during the present investiga- 
tion ; for in two or three samples of wheat which I have 
analyzed, it was found that the amount of gluten in 
the fine flour was less than in the flour passed through 
a coarse sieve and containing a larger proportion of bran. 
These' results, according to Professor Johnston, are to 
be accounted for in the supposition that the part of the 
grain which is most abundant in starch crushes better 
and more easily under the mill-stones than that which, 
being richer in gluten, is probably also tougher and 
less brittle. They are also consistent with the greater 
nourishment generally supposed to reside in household 
bread, made from the flour of the whole grain.'' 

Millers, being aware that they did not save all the 
flour which the grain contained, have laboured under a 
great many difficulties in attempting an impossibility, 
viz. to reduce to the same degree of fineness the dif- 
ferent constituent parts of the grain by one grinding. 

18 



206 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

If they grind high and free, much, and the best portion 
of the flour, will be lost. Their flour will contain but 
little else than the starchy property. If they grind 
close and fine, they glaze their mill-stones, and the heat 
produced by the friction spoils the flour. The starchy 
portion of the grain is ground to a paste, filling the 
meshes of the bolts, and retarding its passage through 
them. This shows the necessity of a double grinding 
process, and, in fact, all millers have, in some manner, 
acknowledged it, by taking up the middlings, or other 
portions of the ground stufi's, and regrinding them. 

I have invented and recently patented an improved 
process of grinding, which obviates these difficulties. 
It consists in separating the starch from the glutinous 
substances contained in the grain, and submitting the 
latter to a second active grinding or scouring process. 
This is efi'ected by placing a set or run of auxiliary mill- 
stones, (under a very rapid motion, from 300 to 500 
revolutions per minute,) so as to intercept the whole 
body of the ofi'al, on its passage from the first or super- 
fine bolts to the return x>r duster bolts. The auxiliary 
mill may be adapted in size to the work to be done; a 
stone 36 inches in diameter^being sufficient for a common 
four-run mill. It should be driven with a spur wheel 
or gearing of some kind, as a belt is liable to slip and 
lose motion. The eye of the stone should be made 
very conical, and the irons put in so as to leave as much 
room in the eye as possible — the whole of which should 
be covered with smooth sheet iron or tin. The stones 
should be strongly banded, hung, and balanced very 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 207 

nicely, dressed true and smooth, with a pretty large 
proportion of deep furrows about the eye or centre. 
The feeding is supplied and made very uniform and per- 
fect, by substituting a large funnel for the common "hop- 
per, shoe, and damsel." Around the tube of the funnel is 
cut a screw, which passes through a nut set immediately 
over the runner's eye. This tube reaches down in the 
eye of the runner until it comes nearly upon the top 
of the bale, which should be formed so as to fit, or 
nearly so, the opening of the tube ] then, by turning the 
funnel, the screw widens or contracts the opening at 
the top of the bale, admitting more or less feed, as de- 
sired. 

In using this improvement, the first grinding should 
be done with reference to the starch entirely, always 
being careful to reduce no part of it so fine as to de- 
stroy its granular qualities. This done, the bolting is 
free, and the starch is bolted out in passing through the 
first or superfine bolts. The remainder of the stuff's is 
sent directly to the auxiliary mill, where it is ground to 
any degree of fineness the miller may desire. It is 
then passed through the lower merchant or duster bolts, 
and such portion of it sent back to the same as may be 
necessary, until all the flour is brought out clear from 
" specula," when it is continually sent to the cooler or 
first bolts, to be uniformly incorporated with the super- 
fine flour. 

In this manner, the miller may put the whole con- 
stituent of the wheat, except the bran, into the super- 
fine barrel, or as much of it as, by any possibility, is 



208 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

susceptible of being made into flour. He may make 
his flour a superior article, in point of colour and tex- 
ture, or he may make the best '^ Grraham'' imaginable, 
by one straight, continuous operation. The following 
are some of the advantages and economies which the 
improvement combines : 

1. As the whole body of the grain is reduced to the 
same fineness, it facilitates the bolting and simplifies 
the bolting machinery; three bolts, properly adjusted 
and adapted to the process being sufficient for a four- 
run mill. 

2. It saves the time, trouble, and expense of grinding 
over middlings, and makes the proceeds of the mid- 
dlings into superfine flour, and thus avoids the loss 
heretefore sustained in the sale of ^^ fine flour.^' 

3. It catches and reduces to flour all the partially 
ground or whole grain, which, by stopping or starting 
the mill, or from any other cause, escapes the first grind- 
ing, and which, by the ordinary mode of grinding, is 
lost in the feeds. 

4. It is admirably adapted to the grinding of the 
wet or damp wheat, so much of which comes to our 
markets in unfavourable seasons. The first grinding 
warms the product, and, on being passed up the eleva- 
tors, through the cooler and first bolts, the ofi'al is com- 
paratively kiln-dried, when it is subjected to the rapid 
motion of the auxiliary mill^ and, on being bolted, is 
readily divested of almost every remaining particle of 
flour. It also exhausts the moisture in wheat compara- 
tively dry, and, at the same time, adds more gluten, both 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 209 

of which have a direct tendency in preserving the flour 
from souring in warm weather and hot climates. 

5. As the flour is drier, richer, and of better quality, 
it will absorb more liquid in bread-making, and of course 
make more bread, and that of more nutritious and 
wholesome quality, than ordinary superfine flour. This 
the bakers in our Eastern markets, where this flour has 
been sold, have already ascertained. 

6. It saves enough from the bran, shorts, shipstufi*s, 
and middlings, besides the great saving in bolting ar- 
rangements, regrinding middlings, &c., to enable the 
miller to make his barrel of excellent superfine flour out 
of 15 to 25 pounds less wheat, on the average, than by 
any mode heretofore practised. 

Perhaps it may be objected that "there is nothing 
new in grinding over the ofi'al, or bran, but, on the con- 
trary, that it has long been practised.'' This, of course, 
I would not deny, as I do not claim to be the discoverer 
or inventor of any new principle. I only claim to have 
adapted the grinding process to the practical and con- 
tinuous operation of scouring or cleaning the offal with 
an auxiliary mill, adapted to that purpose, and running 
very rapidly, and, by a simple construction and arrange- 
ment, to have made the feeding of the offal uniform and 
perfect, and that by these means all the difficulties here- 
tofore encountered in attempting to grind ofi'al are en- 
tirely overcome. Heretofore, in attempting to grind 
offal, the main difficulty has been in the feeding and 
motion. If the stones were run at a high speed, the 
feeding could not be regularly supplied ; if run slowly, 



210 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

there being so large a proportion of gluten in the offal, 
the stones would soon become glazed. But in my plan, 
the stones may be run at any speed, and the feeding of 
bran alone will be uniform and equal. It may also be 
objected that ^Hhe proposed process of regrinding the 
offal will so speck and reduce the standard of the flour, 
that it will not pass inspection." It would answer this 
objection to say that there are now no inspection laws in 
the principal markets for Western flour, and that the 
time is rapidly approaching when the mere wJnteness of 
flour must be considered of secondary importance, and 
that it will be valuable and esteemed in proportioh to 
the nutriment it contains. But I by no means admit 
that the colour of the flour is necessarily changed by 
my process ; on the contrary, I assert that it will main- 
tain its colour and texture so as to warrant inspection, 
and for these reasons : 

1. When the whole meal is sent from the first stones 
to the cooler, the bran is not cut up so fine as when at- 
tempting to get all the flour from the wheat by one 
grinding : this diminishes the chances of specking the 
flour. 

2d. The bolts are fed much fuller than before, as the 
whole body of the flour is much more uniform, which 
has a tendency to keep the lighter particles, or " bran 
speckula," upon the top, until carried off by the rotary 
motion of the bolts, with the feeds ; and, 

3d. The ^^ offal," after being reground, is not "re- 
turned" to the ^'hopperboy," or first bolts, but sent to 
the return or duster bolts, and such portion and quality 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 211 

of the flour bolted out, and sent to the cooler, as the 
miller's judgment may dictate, and such as will not 
lower the grade of superfine flour; the brown ^^speckula" 
of the lower bolts always being returned to the same 
bolts, until the flour rendered is sufficiently clear to 
warrant sending it to the '^ cooler,'' or first bolts, to be 
incorporated with the superfine flour, without danger of 
specking or injuring its colour. This can easily be 
done, and scour the offal as fine as you wish, as the 
same comparative diff'erence is always maintained be- 
tween the bran and flour : the bran always being coarser 
and lighter than the flour, there is no trouble in separa- 
ting the latter from the former, by proper care in ar- 
ranging and managing the bolting. But it is quite 
unnecessary to speculate or theorize upon this sub- 
ject, as practical tests, made under very unfavourable 
circumstances for the improvement, have fully and 
fairly settled the whole question. The fact is, the mil- 
ler's skill and judgment must always determine the 
quality of his flour; and with this improvement he may 
use 6 bushels of wheat for a barrel of superfine flour, 
or he may make it from 3 30-60, or 3 40-60, or 4 bush- 
els, as the condition of the wheat and the circumstances 
may warrant. 

This '' process" may be adapted to any ordinary cus- 
tom mill in the same manner as specified for flouring, 
and with an expense of from 100 to 150 dollars, which 
would enable it to do a respectable flouring business, 
besides saving to the farmer from 3 to 5 pounds of 
flour, of an improved quality, on every bushel of wheat 



212 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

ground. A stone from 20 to 24 inches would be suf- 
ficient for the purpose, which might be driven with a 
belt where it could not conveniently be attached to 
gearing. The whole of the bran and all that is usually 
taken off for middlings and other stuffs should be ground 
through the small stones immediately as it is bolted ; 
after which, it should be thrown into a common bolt, 
and as much of the flour sent continuously to the main 
custom bolt, as the miller desires, and the residue to the 
'^ bran hag." The expenses would be nominal, as com- 
pared with the advantages and savings, which calculated 
at only 3 pounds to the bushel, would amount to 150 
barrels of flour upon every 10,000 bushels of wheat 
ground, which, at $4 per barrel, would amount to the 
snug little sum of $600 saved to the farming commu- 
nity ; and the mill having such an improvement would 
command an amount of business that would abundantly 
compensate it for the trifling expense. Addison J. 
Comstock, of Adrian, (a gentleman who has been 
steadily engaged in milling during the last 15 or 20 
years,) is now making preparation to adapt this improve- 
ment to '^custom grinding,'' after thoroughly testing it 
in his flouring mill. 

The right of use for custom mills will be sold ex- 
tremely low, and the savings made simply in " grinding 
out the tolls" for retail would be a great inducement 
for millers to engage in it, as, in grinding out the tolls 
from every 20,000 bushels of wheat, they would cer- 
tainly save 30 barrels of flour, besides giving to the 
community, for which the 20,000 bushels were ground, 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 213 

300 barrels of good flour more than tliej now obtain 
from' the same wheat. 

I am now prepared to sell rights to the above improve- 
ment, for the use of single mills, for towns, counties, 
or States, having yet the exclusive rights to the follow- 
ing States and Territories, viz. : Ohio, Virginia, Michi- 
gan, Indiana, Illinois, South Carolina, Missouri, Georgia, 
New Jersey, Mississippi, Florida, Arkansas, New Hamp- 
shire, Vermont, Rhode Island, Oregon, and California. 
The remainder of the States are duly assigned to Mr. 
C. Spafford, of Tecumseh, who is also ready to put the 
same upon sale. Extra inducements will be offered to 
those wishing to purchase the right for a State or Ter- 
ritory ; and any one who will first adopt and bring the 
improvement before the public in any one of the above 
named States, (where not already introduced,) may dic- 
tate his own terms. The mill must be first class, and 
the proprietor bound to properly adapt his bolting in 
every particular to it. The expense of adopting it, 
aside from the right of use, will vary, according to cir- 
cumstances, from $150 to $250, after which it will re- 
quire no words to prove its durability and economy. It 
is certainly no objection to it to say that it is very sim- 
ple, and does not develope any unknown or very extra- 
ordinary principles; on the contrary, these should re- 
commend it to all intelligent and practical men. All 
letters addressed to me at Tecumseh, in reference to the 
above, will receive prompt attention. 

D. P. BONNELL. 

Tecumseh, Nov. 17, 1849. 



214 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

It is but very recently that the patent was issued, and 
that I have been prepared to sell; yet the improvement is 
now in practical operation in Messrs. C. Spafford & 
Co/s " Tecumseh Mills/' Messrs. Comstock & Jackson's 
^^ Harrison Mills/' (twenty miles west of Adrian,) 
Messrs. Kennedy & Harris's Steam Mills, at Jackson, 
and is highly complimented by these last-named gentle- 
men, in a; late number of the Detroit Bulletin. It is 
also in operation in Mr. Seneca Hale's '^ Sidney Mills," 
in Shelby county, Ohio. Certificates from the proprie- 
tors of these mills will be seen herein. Also, from 
Charles Howard & Co., (Mr. Howard is Mayor of De- 
troit,) who are extensively engaged in the flour trade, 
and from Mr. John Copland, one of the best and most 
respectable bakers in that city. 

Messrs. Holly & Johnson, of Buffalo, to whom the 
" Tecumseh Mills" flour is consigned, in remitting ac- 
count of sales to Mr. C. Spafford, under date of the 7th 
November, say : ^' These are low figures, but the sales 
in both cases were at the ^ top of the market.' " 

Mr. S. J. Holley, after critically examining this pro- 
cess, in practical operation at the above mill, in writing 
from Buffalo, a few days subsequently, to Mr. Spafford, 
says : " You are unquestionably making your barrel of 
superfine flour from 12 pounds less wheat than any mill 
in the State of Michigan." [It is proper here to re- 
mark that the machinery so examined was the first put 
up to try the practical working of the invention, and 
before application for a patent was made, and that the 
other machinery of the mill was not well adapted to it.] 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 215 

I make the above extracts to show, that although, in 
the opinion of Mr. Hollej, the yields by my process are 
from " 12 pounds less wheat than by any mill in the 
State/' yet the flour maintains a good reputation, and 
sells at the top of the market.'' 



A NEW AND PERFECT MACHINE FOR CRACKINa 

CORN IN THE COB. 

Patented by Mr. Ross, of Pennsylvania. 

This is the best machine for the purpose I have ever 
examined. The breaking is accomplished by the ap- 
plication of a new and different principle, consisting of 
a series of cast-iron cylindrical saws, so framed and ar- 
ranged as to act on the same corn but once in breaking 
it for the mill-stones; there being no power lost in feed- 
ing the machine, the saws taking an equal quantity of 
feed at every revolution. It runs perfectly steady, 
without racking any part of the other machinery of the 
mill, as is the case with the old-fashioned corn-crusher 
It is capable of cracking from 20 to 50 bushels per 
hour, making about 200 revolutions per minute, and is 
also easily set up, it being driven by a band 5 inches 
wide; and it takes up but a small space. For gristmills 
which do a large custom business, it is just the machine 
wanted. It can be furnished to millers in any part of 
the United States, by addressing Mr. Ethan A. Cran- 
dall, at his mill-stone manufactory, at Troy, New York. 



216 



THE AMERICAN MILLER, 



TROY (NEW YORK) MILL-GEARING ESTABLISHMENT, 

By Messrs. Starbuck & Son, 

Who are also manufacturing steam engines of all 
sizes, together with mills for sawing lumber, on an im- 
proved plan. These saw-mills, for small streams, are an 
excellent substitute for the purpose designed, being all 
complete of cast-iron gearing, made in the best possible 
style. This concern also constructs them to suit all 
powers, and capable of sawing from 500 to 3000 feet 
per day, with engines attached. 




Starbuck & Son are also manufacturing Leonard 
Smithes patent smut machine ; this is one of the late 



\ 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 



217 



improved machines, and said to work very well ; they 
are made of nine different sizes, costing from $80 to $200, 
and will clean from 15 to 150 bushels per hour. 




CLASP COUPLING JOINT 

West & Thompson's Patent, New York City.— Patented June 
27th, 1848. 

This is one of the first-class inventions of modem 
times for coupling steam and other pipes, and shafts, 



218 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 

and some other solid bodies, as it greatly facilitates the 
putting them up, and in making repairs, and at less ex- 
pense, as it dispenses with drilling of holes, brazing, 
soldering, and fitting up flanches. 

The figure on the preceding page represents two 
flanches, joined each to one of two pieces of pipe, and 
its application in conducting steam. 

P P are pieces of pipe. F F are two flanches, joined 
each to one of the pieces of pipe. It will be ob- 
served that the form given to the flanches is of such a 
nature as to retain the clasp in its proper place under 
any pressure of steam. It will also be perceived that 
the inner form of the clasp is so constructed as not to 
bear upon the flanches, only at the parts where the 
pressure is most required, close to the pipe. R R is a 
piece of vulcanized India-rubber, or any other packing 
that may be thought necessary. C C is the clasp. 
This is divided into two parts, and this part is repre- 
sented with the flanch resting on it. The other part of 
this clasp is represented by the figure to the right, which 
shows its concave part. By placing this over the flanches 
and securing the two parts of the clasp together by 
bolts passing through H H, is all the operation that is 
required in connecting two separate pieces of pipe to- 
gether. Every engineer or mechanic will perceive that 
the tighter the clasp is screwed up, the faces of the 
flanches are brought closer together, and the joint is 
thereby made perfectly tight. 

Advantages of this Joint over all others now in use, 
with a list of prices. — 1. The cost is from 25 to 30 per 



AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 219 

cent. less. 2. The labour and expense of brazing or 
soldering flanches on pipes is obviated, and not required. 
3. There are no holes to drill in the flanches, washers 
to use, or grummets to put around the bolts. 4. It only 
requires two, or at most three, bolts for the largest size 
joint, even if thej were seven feet in diameter. 5. The 
joints are tighter and stronger, as the pressure is exert- 
ed at the neck of the flanch, in close proximity to the 
periphery of the pipe. 6. The cost of packing is one- 
half less, and cannot blow out, as it is confined by the 
grooved segmental clasp. 7. Joints of any size may 
be taken apart, and put together in from five to ten 
minutes. 8. It enables a defective portion of a feed or 
blow-off pipe to be cut out, and a new piece to be put 
in, without involving the stopping of the attached 
engine, or arresting the operation of the attached boiler. 
9. They are more economical in space, weight, cost, 
and repairs, and are applicable to cylinder heads, bon- 
nets, steam chests, air pumps, condensers, man-hole 
plates for boilers, stopcocks, nozzles, common and ro- 
tary pumps, and all other purposes where joints are re- 
quired. 

It will also be evident from the foregoing, to any 
engineer or machinist, and experience has shown, that 
shafts and other solid bodies can be coupled together in 
like manner as hollow pipes or vessels. The flanches, 
instead of solid projections, of the bodies to be united, 
may be made separate, and connected therewith in any 
manner desired. 

In flouring mills, the shafts may be taken down with- 



220 THE AMERICAN MILLER. 

out interfering with th^ bridge trees or centres. This 
particular alone, makes it preferable to any other cou- 
pling for the purpose, as, in repairing, time and expense 
is saved, and not having to overhaul the centres, which, 
in a large merchant mill, is an item of considerable ex- 
pense on the old plan of either clutch or sleeve coupling. 
These couplings are made and kept for sale, and in- 
formation respecting them may also be had, by applica- 
tion to G-eorge D. Baldwin, city of New York. 



INDEX. 



Air between Millstones Page 118 

Bale and Driver 127 

Bran Dusters and Separators 200 

Branding 130 

Breadstuffs, Beck's Report on 134 

Bolts, Making Cloth for 91 

Bolt, Mauks's Patent 131 

Bolting, New Materials for 197 

Central Forces 23 

Circle, Geometrical Definitions of. 37 

Circumferences of Circles, &c., Table of 36 

Clasp Coupling Joint, Thompson 217 

Conveyor 110 

Corn, Machine for Cracking 215 

Economyin Mills..... ...." 103 

French Burr 66 

French Burr Millstone Manufactories , 190 

Friction 25 

Tables of 29, 30 

Flouring, Bonnell's Improved Process 202 

Furrows 80 

Gearing, Troy Establishment 216 

Grains, Culture of. 63 

Grain Dryer 120 

Gravity... ^ 99 

Grinding 84 

Harrison's Patent Mill 189 

19* 221 



222 INDEX. 

Help necessary in a Mill Fage 94 

Hydraulics 96 

Hydrostatics 39 

Inspection of Flour 132 

Inclined Plane 18 

Indian Corn ..• 87 

Journals of First Movers, Table of 35 

Lever, Principle of 15 

Machinery 110 

Mechanics, First Principles of. 13 

Merchant Bolts, Construction of. 88 

. New Arrangement of. 89 

Mill-Dams Ill 

Mill-Picks, Tempering 92 

Size of 91 

Millstone Dresses 74 

Millstones, Laying Out the Dress in 73 

The Size of. 83 

Staffing and Cracking of. 81 

Motion 20 

New Stones, Directions for Preparing 70 

Packing Flour 129 

Packer's Table 130 

Percussion and Oscillation, Centre of. 38 

Pitch Circles, to Find Diameter of 109 

Proof Staff, Use of 93 

Pulley 19 

Raccoon Burr 69 

Saw-Logs, Table of. 187 

Saw-Mill 184 

Smut Machines 115 

Brown's 199 

Smith's 216 

Specific Gravity 42 

Specific Gravities, Table of 44 



INDEX. 223 

^*^^™ Page 183 

Stone, Bedding jq^ 

to Find the Velocity of 108 

Stone and Wheel, Revolutions of. 109 

Technical Words, E;splanation of. H 

Water, the Action and Reaction of 46 

Inches to Drive one Run of Stones, Table of. 55 

Upvrard and Downward Pressure of 40 

Water- Wheels, Hydrodynamic Power of. 45 

Combination Reaction 50 

— Table of Velocities of 54 

To find the Revolutions of. 108 

Howd's Improved Direct Action 57 

• Vandewater's 60 

Wheat Flour, Analysis of 1j60 

Wheat, Table for Reckoning Price of. 170 

Rules for Purchase of 123 

Wheat Scale, Brown's 198 

Wheels, Overshot 56 



THE END. 



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PUBUSHED BY 

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SUCCESSOR TO E. L. CARET, 

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PHILADELPHIA. 



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The following have already appeared, and additions will, 
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pared. 



THE AMERICAN MILLER, AND MILLWRIGHT'S 
ASSISTANT. 

By William Carter Hughes. 
Illustrated by numerous engravings of the most approved 
machinery, &c. In one volume, 12mo. 



THE TURNER'S COMPANION: 

Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric 
Turning. Also, various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instru- 
ments, and Directions for using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill, Ver- 
tical Cutter, and Circular Rest ; with Patterns, and instructions 
for working them. In one volume, 12mo. 



THE PAINTER, GILDEE, AND VARNISHER'S 
COMPANION: 

Containing Rules and Regulations for eyery thing relating to 
the arts of Painting, Gilding, Varnishing, and Glass Staining : 
numerous useful and valuable Receipts ; Tests for the detection 
of Adulterations in Oils, Colours, &c., and a Statement of the 
Diseases and Accidents to which Painters, Gilders, and Var- 
nishers are particularly liable ; with the simplest methods of 
Prevention and Remedy. In one volume, small 12mo., cloth. 

Rejecting all that appeared foreign to the subject, the compiler has omitted 
nothing of real practical worth. — Hunt's Merchant's Magazine. 

An excellent practical work, and one which the practical man cannot afford 
to be without. — Farmer and Mechanic. 

It contains eyery thing that is of interest to persons engaged in this trade. 
— Bulleiin. 

This book will provp valuable to all whose business is in gpy way connected 
with painting. — Scntt's Weekly. 

Cannot fail to be useful. — N. Y. Commercial. 



THE BUILDEE'S POCKET COMPANION : 

Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Archi- 
tecture ; with Practical Rules and Instructions connected with 
the subject. By A. C. Smeaton, Civil Engineer, &c. In one 
volume, 12mo. 

Contents : — The Builder, Carpenter, Joiner, Mason, Plas- 
terer, Plumber, Painter, Smith, Practical Geometry, Surveyor, 
Cohesive Strength of Bodies, Architect. 

It gives, in a small space, the most thorough directions to the builder, from 
the laying of a brick, or the felling of a tree, up to the most elaborate pro- 
duction of ornamental architecture. It is scientific, without being obscure and 
unintelligible, and every house-carpenter, master, journeyman, or apprentice, 
should have a copy at hand always. — Evening Bulletin. 

Complete on the subjects of which it treats. A most useful practical work. 
— Bill. American. 

It must be of great practical -atiWij.-^ Savannah Republican. 

To whatever branch of the art of building the reader may belong, he will 
find in this something valuable and calculated to assist his progress. — Farmer 
and Mechanic. 

This is a valuable little volume, designed to assist the student in the acquisi- 
tion of elementary knowledge, and will be found highly advantageous to every 
young man who has devoted himself to the interesting pursuits of which it 
treats. — Va. Herald. 



3 

THE DYER AND COIOITR-MAKER'S COM- 
PANION: 

Containing upwards of two hundred Receipts for making Co- 
lors, on the most approved principles, for all the various styles 
and fabrics now in existence ; with the Scouring Process, and 
plain Directions for Preparing, Washing-off, and Finishing the 
Goods. In one volume, small 12mo., cloth. 

This is another of that most excellent class of practical books, which the 
publisher is giving to the public. Indeed we believe there is not, for manu- 
facturers, a more valuable work, having been prepared for, and expressly 
adapted to their business. — Farmer and Mechanic. 

It is a valuable book. — Otsego Republican. 

We have shown it to some practical men, who all pronounced it the completest 
thing of the kind they had seen — N. Y. Nation. 



THE CABINET-MAKER AND UPHOLSTERER'S 
COMPANION: 

Comprising the Rudiments and Principles of Cabinet Making 
and Upholstery, with familiar instructions, illustrated by Ex- 
amples, for attaining a proficiency in the Art of Drawing, as 
applicable to Cabinet Work ; the processes of Veneering, Inlay- 
ing, and Buhl Work ; the art of Dyeing and Staining Wood, 
Ivory, Bone, Tortoise-shell, etc. Directions for Lackering, Ja- 
panning, and Varnishing ; to make French Polish ; to prepare 
the best Glues, Cements, and Compositions, and a number of 
Receipts particularly useful for Workmen generally, with Ex- 
planatory and Illustrative Engravings. By J. Stokes. In one 
volume, 12mo., with illustrations. 



The two following are in preparation : 

THE TANNER AND CURRIER'S COMPANION. 

In one volume, 12mo. 



THE BREWER'S COMPANION. 

In one volume, 12mo. 



THE FRUIT, FLOWER, AND KITCHEN GARDEN. 

By Patrick Neill, L. L. D. 

Thoroughly revised, and adapted to the climate and seasons 

of the United States, by a Practical Horticulturist. Illustrated 

by numerous Engravings. In one volume, 12mo. 



HOUSEHOLD SURGERY; OR, HINTS ON EMER- 
GENCIES. 

By J. F. South, one of the Surgeons of St. Thomas's Hos- 
pital. In one volume, 12mo. Illustrated by nearly fifty En- 
gravings. 

CONTENTS : 

The Doctors >SAop.— Poultices, Fomentations, Lotions, Lini- 
ments, Ointments, Plasters. 

^wr^rer?/.— Blood-letting, Blistering, Vaccination, Tooth-draw- 
ing, How to put on a Roller, Lancing the Gums, Swollen Veins, 
Bruises, Wounds, Torn or Cut Achilles Tendon, What is to be 
done in cases of sudden Bleeding from various causes. Scalds 
and Burns, Frost-bite, Chilblains, Sprains, Broken Bones, Bent 
Bones, Dislocations, Ruptures, Piles, Protruding Bowels, Wet- 
ting the Bed, Whitlow, Boils, Black-heads, Ingrowing Nails, 
Bunions, Corns, Sty in the Eye, Blight in the Eye, Tumours in 
the Eyelids, Inflammation on the Surface of the Eye, Pustules 
on the Eye, Milk Abscesses, Sore Nipples, Irritable Breast, 
Breathing, Stifling, Choking, Things in the Eye, On Dress, 
Exercise and Diet of Children, Bathing, Infections, Observations 
on Ventilation. 



HOUSEHOLD MEDICINE. 

In one volume, 12mo. Uniform with, and a companion to, 
the above. (In immediate preparation.) 



THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CHEMISTEY, PRACTI- 
CAL AND THEORETICAL : 

Embracing its application to the Arts, Metallurgy, Mineralogy, 
Geology, Medicine, and Pharmacy. By James C. Booth, Melter 
and Refiner in the United States Mint ; Professor of Applied 
Chemistry in the Franklin Institute, etc.; assisted by Campbell 
MoRFiT, author of "Chemical Manipulations," etc. Complete 
in one volume, royal octavo, 978 pages, with numerous wood- 
cuts and other illustrations. 

It covers the whole field of Chemistry as applied to Arts and Sciences. * * * 
As no library is complete without a common dictionary, it is also our opinion 
that none can be without this Encyclopedia of Chemistry.— ^Sfciew^i^^c American. 

A work of time and labour, and a treasury of chemical information.— iVbriA 
Avierican. 

By far the best manual of the kind which has been presented to the Ameri- 
can public. — Boston Courier. 

An invaluable work for the dissemination of sound practical knowledge 

Ledger. ^ 

A treasury of chemical information, including all the latest and most import- 
ant discoveries. — Baltimore American. 

At the first glance at this massive volume, one is amazed at th« amount of 
reading furnished in its compact double pages, about one thousand in number. 
A further examination shows that every page is richly stored with informa- 
tion, and that while the labours of the authors have covered a wide field, they 
have neglected or slighted nothing. Every chemical term, substance, and pro- 
cess is elaborately, but intelligibly, described. The whole science of Chemistry 
is placed before the reader as fully as is practicable, with a science continually 
progressing. * * Unlike most American works of this class, the authors have 
not depended upon any one European work for their materials. They have 
gathered theirs from works on Chemistry in all languages, and in all parts of 
Europe and America; their own experience, as practical chemists, being ever 
ready to settle doubts or reconcile conflicting authorities. The fruit of so much 
toil is a work that must ever be an honour to American Science. — Evenina Bul- 
letin. " 



PERFUMERY; ITS MANUFACTURE AND USE: 

With Instructions in every branch of the Art, and Eeceipts 
for all the Fashionable Preparations ; the whole forming a valu- 
able aid to the Perfumer, Druggist, and Soap Manufacturer. 
Illustrated by numerous Wood-cuts. From the French of Cel- 
nart, and other late authorities. With Additions and Improve- 
ments by Campbell Morpit, one of the Editors of the " Ency- 
clopedia of Chemistry." In one volume, 12mo., cloth. 



6 

THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON, IN ALL ITS 
VARIOUS BRANCHES: 

To wHcli is added an Essay on the Manufacture of Steel, by 

Frederick Overman, Mining Engineer, with one hundred and 

fifty Wood Engravings. In one volume, octavo, five hundred 

pages. 

We have now to announce the appearance of another valuable work on the 
subject which, in our humble opinion, supplies any deficiency which late im- 
provements and discoveries may have caused, from the lapse of time since the 
date of " Mushet" and " Schrivenor." It is the production of one of our trans- 
atlantic brethren, Mr. Frederick Overman, Mining Engineer : and we do not 
hesitate to set it down as a work of great importance to all connected with the 
iron interest ; one which, while it is sufiSciently technological fully to explain 
chemical analysis, and the various phenomena of iron under different circum- 
stances, to the satisfaction of the most fastidious, is written in that clear and 
comprehensive style as to be available to the capacity of the humblest mind, 
and consequently will be of much advantage to those works where the pro- 
prietors may see the desirability of placing it in the hands of their operatives. 
— London Morning Journal. 



SYLLABUS OF A COMPLETE COURSE OF LEC- 
TURES ON CHEMISTRY: 

Including its Application to the Arts, Agriculture, and Mining, 
prepared for the use of the Gentlemen Cadets at the Hon. E. I. 
Co.'s Military Seminary, Addiseombe. By Professor E. Solly, 
Lecturer on Chemistry in the Hon. E. I. Co.'s Military Seminary. 
Kevised by the Author of " Chemical Manipulations." In one 
volume, octavo, cloth. 

The present work is designed to occupy a vacant place in the libraries of 
Chemical text-books. It is admirably adapted to the wants of both teacher 
and PUPIL ; and will be found especially convenient to the latter, either as a 
companion in the class-room, or as a remembrancer in the study. It gives, at 
a glance, under appropriate headings, a classified view of the whole science, 
which is at the same time compendious and minutely accurate ; and its wide 
margins afford sufiicient blank space for such manuscript notes as the student 
may wish to add during lectures or recitations. 

The almost indispensable advantages of such an impressive aid to memory 
are evident to every student who has used one in other branches of study. 
Therefore, as there is now no Chemical Syllabus, we have been induced by the 
excellencies of this work to recommend its republication in this country; con- 
fident that an examination of the contents will produce full conviction of its 
intrinsic worth and usefulness. — Editor's Preface. 



7 
ELECTROTYPE MANIPULATION': 

Being the Theory and Plain Instructions in the Art of Working 
in Metals, by Precipitating them from their Solutions, through 
the agency of Galvanic or Voltaic Electricity. By Charles V. 
Walker, Hon. Secretary to the London Electrical Society, etc. 
Illustrated by Wood-cuts. In one volume, 24mo., cloth. From 
the thirteenth London edition. 



PHOTOGENIC MANIPULATION: 

Containing the Theory and Plain Instructions in the Art of 
Photography, or the Productions of Pictures through the Agency 
of Light ; including Calotype, Chrysotype, Cyanotype, Chroma- 
type, Energiatype, Anthotype, Amphitype, Daguerreotype, 
Thermography, Electrical and Galvanic Impressions. By 
George Thomas Fisher, Jr., Assistant in the Laboratory of 
the London Institution. Illustrated by woo'd-cuts. In one vo- 
lume, 24mo., cloth. 



MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN: 

Being a Common-Place Book of Principles, Theorems, Rules, 
and Tables, in various departments of Pure and Mixed Mathe- 
matics, with their Applications ; especially to the pursuits of 
Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics, and Civil Engineers, with nu- 
merous Engravings. By Olinthus Gregory, L. L. D., F. R. A. S. 

Only let men awake, and fix their eyeg, one while on the nature of things, 
another while on the application of them to the use and service of mankind. 
— Lord Bacon. 



AN ELEMENTARY COURSE OF INSTRUCTION 
ON ORDNANCE AND GUNNERY:- 

Prepared for the use of the Midshipmen at the Naval School. 
By James H. Ward, U. S. N. In one volume, octavo. 



A GUIDE TO WOEKERS IN METAL AND STONE: 

For the use of Architects and Designers, Black and White- 
Smiths, Brass Founders, Gas Fitters, Iron Masters, Plumbers, 
Silver and Gold-Smiths, Stove and Furnace Manufacturers, 
Pattern Makers, Marble Masons, Stucco Makers, Carvers and 
Ornamental Workers in Wood, Potters, &c., from original De- 
signs and Selections made from every acceptable source, Ameri- 
can and European. By Thomas U. Waltek, Architect of Gi- 
rard College, and John Jay Smith, Librarian of the Philadel- 
phia Library. In four parts, quarto. 



TWO HUNDRED DESIGNS FOE COTTAGES AND 
VILLAS, etc. etc., 

Original and Selected. By Thomas U. Walter, Architect of 
Girard College, and John Jay Smith, Librarian of the Phila- 
delphia Library. In four parts, quarto. 



SHEEP HUSBANDRY IN THE SOUTH: 

Comprising a Treatise on the Acclimation of Sheep in the 
Southern States, and an Account of the Different Breeds. Also, 
a Complete Manual of Breeding, Summer and Winter Manage- 
ment, and of the Treatment of Diseases. With Portraits and 
other Illustrations. By Henry S. Randall. In one volume, 
octavo. 



MISS LESLIE'S COMPLETE COOKERY. 

Directions for Cookery, in its Various Branches. By Miss 
Leslie. Fortieth edition. Thoroughly revised, with the ad- 
dition of new Receipts. In one volume, 12mo. 



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5 



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Do. Labours of Hercules 25 

Do. Letter Writer 25 

Do. Medical Student, 2 parts, complete 50 

Do. Mythology 25 

Do. Peep into London Society 25 

Do. Works, 2 vols. 12mo, each 50 

Scenes in the Rocky Mountains, Oregon, Texas, &c. &c., 

paper 50 

Simon Suggs, and other Alabama Sketches, with illus- 
trations by Darley, paper 50 

Story of a Feather, by Douglas Jerrold ^.. 25 

Stray Subjects "Arrested" and Bound Over," by the 

"Old 'Un" and "Young 'Un," paper 50 

Thierry's Historical Essays, 1 voL Svo, paper. 75 

Torlogh O'Brien 12 

Do. illustrated 37 

Tupper's Author's Mind 37 

Valerie, a Tale, by Captain Marryat 25 

V Walker's Manipulations in the Scientific Arts, in 2 

Js parts, paper covers », 60 

M> 6 ^ 













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♦^ LISRAIIV BINOINa ^^ /^ 

"MAR 81 vl : 

"* ST. AUGUSTINE V^ <^ 



